Anatomy and Physiology Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is the study of the structure of the body called?

Physiology

Histology

Neuroanatomy

Anatomy (correct)

Muscle fibers and muscle tissue refer to the same structure.

False

Name the plane that divides the body into top and bottom sections.

Transverse plane

The __________ skeleton refers to the limbs of the body.

appendicular Signup and view all the answers

Match the following anatomical terms with their definitions:

Superior = Closer to the top of the body Inferior = Closer to the bottom of the body Cranial = Closer to the head Caudal = Closer to the tail Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following body systems is primarily responsible for movement?

Skeletal Signup and view all the answers

The anatomical position has the body standing with palms facing backward.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is neuroanatomy?

The study of the structure of the nervous system Signup and view all the answers

The __________ plane cuts the body into equal right and left halves.

midsagittal Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes movement that resembles waves in the stomach?

Contract Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a structure closer to the midline of the body?

Medial Signup and view all the answers

The ankle is proximal to the knee.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the action called that decreases a joint angle?

Flexion Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is posterior to the sternum.

vertebral column Signup and view all the answers

Match the anatomical terms with their definitions:

Proximal = Closer to the trunk Distal = Further from the trunk Superficial = Closer to the surface Deep = Further from the surface Signup and view all the answers

Which movement would be described as abduction?

Moving the leg away from the body Signup and view all the answers

Supination involves turning the palm down.

False Signup and view all the answers

Identify the term used to describe a motion that increases a joint angle.

Extension Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is the motion of turning a limb around its axis.

rotation Signup and view all the answers

Which pair describes the anatomical positions of the body properly?

Palm: Anterior to the back of the hand Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of muscle tissue?

Facilitates movement Signup and view all the answers

Nervous tissue primarily provides structural support in the body.

False Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue is responsible for the transportation of substances within the body?

Connective tissue Signup and view all the answers

The process of movement in muscle tissue is primarily caused by __________.

contraction Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of tissue with their respective functions:

Muscle tissue = Facilitates movement Nervous tissue = Controls body functions Connective tissue = Transports substances Epithelial tissue = Covers surfaces and lines cavities Signup and view all the answers

Which type of tissue adds structural integrity to the body?

Connective tissue Signup and view all the answers

Stratified arrangements are commonly associated with epithelial tissue.

True Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main functions of nervous tissue?

Control and communication Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of stratified squamous epithelium?

Very thick and protective Signup and view all the answers

Granular epithelium has apical cells with nuclei.

False Signup and view all the answers

What type of epithelium is found in areas where protection is important, such as the skin?

Stratified squamous epithelium Signup and view all the answers

The apical surface is typically found on the __________ of epithelial structures.

top Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of epithelium with their characteristics:

Stratified squamous = Very thick, protective, found in skin Granular epithelium = Cuboidal cells, produces substances Simple columnar = Single layer, specialized in absorption Ciliated epithelium = Contains hair-like projections for movement Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes granular epithelium?

Has cuboidal cells that produce substances Signup and view all the answers

Stratified squamous epithelium is primarily involved in secretion.

False Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the nuclei of apical cells in granular epithelium?

They die or are absent Signup and view all the answers

Stratified squamous epithelium is commonly found in __________ areas.

protective Signup and view all the answers

What is a common function of the epithelial tissue lining the outer layers of skin?

Protection against environmental damage Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of fibrocartilage?

More mobility than hyaline cartilage Signup and view all the answers

Fibrocartilage has a high regenerative capacity due to its blood supply.

False Signup and view all the answers

Where is fibrocartilage commonly found in the body?

Between the joints of the pelvis Signup and view all the answers

The exocrine gland that secretes sweat consists of a duct that runs from the lumen to the _____ to release sweat.

skin Signup and view all the answers

Match the following glands with their functions:

Sweat glands = Secrete sweat Salivary glands = Secrete saliva Sebaceous glands = Secrete oil Mammary glands = Secrete milk Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue serves as a filter and joins epithelial tissue to connective tissue?

Basement membrane Signup and view all the answers

The thyroid gland produces hormones that the body does not need.

False Signup and view all the answers

What functions do cartilage tissues provide in the body?

Resists compression and cushions body structures. Signup and view all the answers

The __________ surface of epithelial tissue is anchored to the basement membrane.

basal Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of connective tissue with their descriptions:

Adipose = Stores energy and provides insulation Cartilage = Resists compression and cushions Basement membrane = Anchors and filters substances Thyroid gland = Produces hormones for the body Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of cartilage in the body?

To provide structural support Signup and view all the answers

Adipose tissue primarily consists of water.

False Signup and view all the answers

What surrounds a single thyroid gland and helps the gland function?

Epithelial tissue Signup and view all the answers

Cartilage helps to prevent joints from __________ against each other.

rubbing Signup and view all the answers

Which type of connective tissue can be found at the ends of bones?

Cartilage Signup and view all the answers

Which type of epithelial tissue is most common?

Hyaline Signup and view all the answers

Epithelial tissues are vascular and receive blood supply from arteries and veins.

False Signup and view all the answers

What type of connective tissue supports epithelial tissue?

Connective tissue Signup and view all the answers

Elastic epithelial tissue can __________ and is found in the nose and ear.

stretch Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for epithelial tissue to be innervated?

It has nerve supply. Signup and view all the answers

Match the epithelial tissues with their characteristics:

Hyaline = Most common epithelial tissue Elastic = Can stretch and is found in the nose and ear Avascular = Does not receive blood supply from arteries or veins Innervated = Has a nerve supply Signup and view all the answers

Epithelial tissues can be avascular and innervated at the same time.

True Signup and view all the answers

Name one place where elastic epithelial tissue is found.

Nose or ear Signup and view all the answers

Epithelial tissues fit closely together to form __________ sheets.

continuous Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic does elastic epithelial tissue possess?

It is able to stretch and be mobile. Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step that occurs following an injury where blood rushes to the area?

Formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus Signup and view all the answers

Fibrocartilage is first replaced by bone before healing completely.

True Signup and view all the answers

What happens to fibrocartilage during the healing process?

It gets replaced with bone. Signup and view all the answers

In __________, the radius crosses over the ulna.

pronation Signup and view all the answers

Match the structure to its primary function:

Trabecular Bone = Provides structural support and houses bone marrow Pelvic Anatomy = Supports and protects pelvic organs Spongy Bone = Facilitates nutrient and waste exchange Arterial Connections = Ensures blood supply to tissues Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures are not present in the vertebral column?

Lumbar process Signup and view all the answers

The red marrow in adult bones is primarily found in the long bone's diaphysis.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which cartilage turns into bone called?

ossification Signup and view all the answers

The yellow marrow can turn into red marrow when there is a decrease in __________.

red blood cells Signup and view all the answers

Match the following joints with their primary locations:

Wrist = Carpals Elbow = Forearm Hip = Thigh Knee = Leg Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable function of trabecular bone?

Absorbs shock and distributes loads Signup and view all the answers

The lateral mass of the vertebra connects to the occipital condyle of the occipital bone.

True Signup and view all the answers

What type of bone marrow is responsible for blood cell production?

red marrow Signup and view all the answers

Spongy bone is found in the __________ of long bones, providing structural integrity.

epiphysis Signup and view all the answers

Which feature is associated with the axis (C2) vertebra?

Contains a dens Signup and view all the answers

What structure allows for better mobility around the waist?

Pelvis Signup and view all the answers

The head of the fibula connects to the femur directly.

False Signup and view all the answers

What forms part of the wrist joint?

The styloid process Signup and view all the answers

The __________ notch wraps around the trachea.

trochlear Signup and view all the answers

Match the following features with their descriptions:

Demifacets = Articulates with ribs in thoracic vertebrae Trochlear notch = Helps in the elbow joint articulation Olecranon process = Fits into the ulna Coronoid process = Tucks into the coronoid fossa Signup and view all the answers

Which bone connects to the tibia at the proximal tibiofibular joint?

Fibula Signup and view all the answers

The ribs connect directly to the humerus.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of trabecular bone?

Shock absorption and support Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is a part of the elbow joint that impacts flexion and extension.

olecranon process Signup and view all the answers

Which structure does the coronoid process fit into?

Coronoid fossa Signup and view all the answers

What is osteomalacia primarily caused by?

Poor mineralization due to vitamin D deficiency Signup and view all the answers

The knee joint is located between the lateral and medial condyles of the tibia and fibula.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why bones may not support a child's weight in cases of rickets?

Cartilage is not as solid as bone. Signup and view all the answers

Osteoporosis is common in __________ due to decreased sex hormones.

older adults Signup and view all the answers

Match the bone disorder with its characteristic description:

Osteomalacia = Soft bones due to poor mineralization Rickets = Poor bone growth and enlarged long bones Osteoporosis = Bone resorption exceeds deposition Scoliosis = Curvature of the spine Signup and view all the answers

How are true ribs classified in relation to the sternum?

They connect to the sternum via costal cartilage Signup and view all the answers

The humerus is attached to the scapula at the glenohumeral joint.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the interosseous membrane?

Connective tissue that helps stabilize the bones of the forearm. Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is the area where the forearm connects to the upper arm.

elbow Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of decreased estrogen levels on bone health?

Increased risk of osteoporosis Signup and view all the answers

What main function does the trabecular bone serve in the body?

Absorb shock and distribute weight Signup and view all the answers

The medial border of the scapula is connected to the rib cage.

False Signup and view all the answers

Identify the three pelvic bones that make up the acetabulum.

ilium, ischium, pubis Signup and view all the answers

The ______ is located between vertebrae and provides shock absorption.

intervertebral disc Signup and view all the answers

Match the following structures to their functions:

Pubic symphysis = Shock absorption during childbirth Femur = Supports weight during standing and walking Tibia = Transfers weight to the foot Sacrum = Supports the pelvis and connects to the vertebral column Signup and view all the answers

Which cartilage type provides the most support with flexibility?

Hyaline cartilage Signup and view all the answers

Fibrocartilage is primarily avascular, which means it has a rich blood supply.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the obturator foramen in the skeletal system?

Allows passage of blood vessels and nerves Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding spongy bone structure is correct?

It contains trabeculae and is lighter than compact bone. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of joint allows for a gliding motion?

Plane joint Signup and view all the answers

A syndesmosis joint allows for a high degree of movement.

False Signup and view all the answers

What type of cartilage joins bones in a symphysis joint?

Fibrocartilage Signup and view all the answers

The joint where the first rib connects to the manubrium is called a __________.

synchondrosis Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of joints with their characteristics:

Suture = Immovable joints found in the skull Ball and socket = Allows for all directional movement Hinge = Flexion and extension movement Interosseous membrane = Connective tissue between long bones Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following joints allows for rotational movement?

Ball and socket joint Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary surgical method used to remove cartilage fragments?

Arthroscopic surgery Signup and view all the answers

Cartilage has a rich blood supply that helps it repair itself.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is a common overuse injury associated with the knee?

Cartilage tear Signup and view all the answers

Cartilage is classified as __________ because it cannot repair itself due to a lack of a blood supply.

avascular Signup and view all the answers

Match the following consequences of cartilage tears with their descriptions:

Joint pain = Caused by pressure on vessels Surgical intervention = Typically involves arthroscopic surgery Cartilage fragments = Interfere with joint function Healing capacity = Limited due to avascular nature Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true about the healing of cartilage?

It cannot heal itself effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What can happen if cartilage fragments interfere with joint function?

Pain Signup and view all the answers

Avascular tissues have a robust ability to regenerate.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is a common treatment for tendonitis?

Rest, ice, and anti-inflammatory drugs Signup and view all the answers

All types of tendon injuries are classified as tendonitis.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of tendonitis?

Overuse or excessive rubbing from repetitive motion on a tendon. Signup and view all the answers

A __________ connects muscle to bone.

tendon Signup and view all the answers

Match the following activities with their association with tendonitis:

Baseball players = Common athletes with tendonitis Swimmers = Common athletes with tendonitis Physiotherapy = Strengthens other muscles Ice therapy = Used in treatment for swelling Signup and view all the answers

What happens to blood flow in the area of inflammation?

It increases to supply immune cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern when a ligament is sprained?

A ligament gets stretched or torn Signup and view all the answers

Sprains can occur in the epiphyseal cartilage.

False Signup and view all the answers

How many degrees of sprains exist?

Three Signup and view all the answers

Healing of ligaments is slow due to poor __________.

vascularization Signup and view all the answers

Match the degree of sprain with its description:

1 = Slight tearing (left) 2 = Stretching (middle) 3 = Completely torn (right) Signup and view all the answers

What treatment can be used for partial and lower grade tears of ligaments?

Physiotherapy Signup and view all the answers

Epiphyseal cartilage transforms into bone as a child grows.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible treatment for a Grade 3 ligament sprain?

Surgical reattachment or ligament graft Signup and view all the answers

Partial tears are typically categorized as a Grade __________ sprain.

2 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the slow healing of sprains?

Poor vascularization Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body.

Physiology

Physiology is the study of the function of the body.

Branches of Anatomy

Neuroanatomy focuses on the nervous system.
Embryology deals with the development of the body from conception to birth.
Histology studies the microscopic structure of tissues.

Body Systems

Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails.
Skeletal System: Bones, joints.
Muscular System: Muscles.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.
Endocrine System: Hormone-producing glands.
Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels.
Lymphatic System: Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes.
Respiratory System: Lungs, airways.
Digestive System: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines.
Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder.
Reproductive System: Male and female reproductive organs.

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Position: Standing erect, facing forward, palms facing forward, arms at the side, feet hip-width apart.
Axial Skeleton: The central part of the skeleton, including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs, including the arms, legs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle.

Anatomical Planes

Coronal (Frontal) Plane: Divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections.
Transverse Plane: Divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) or upper and lower sections.
Sagittal (Parasagittal) Plane: Divides the body into right and left sections that may not be equal.
Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Divides the body into equal right and left halves.
Oblique Plane: A diagonal cut, often used to visualize the limbs.

Directional Terms:

Superior (Cranial): Closer to the head.
Inferior (Caudal): Closer to the tail (feet).
Anterior: Towards the front.
Posterior: Towards the back.
Medial: Closer to the midline of the body.
Lateral: Further away from the midline of the body.
Proximal: Closer to the trunk or point of origin.
Distal: Further from the trunk or point of origin.
Superficial: Closer to the surface.
Deep: Further from the surface.

Movements:

Flexion: Decreases the angle at a joint.
Extension: Increases the angle at a joint.
Adduction: Movement towards the midline of the body.
Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body.
Lateral Flexion: Bending away from the midline of the body, typically used for the head or trunk.
Rotation: Turning around a central axis, like rotating the head or trunk.
Internal (Medial) Rotation: Rotation of a limb inwards toward the midline.
External (Lateral) Rotation: Rotation of a limb outwards away from the midline.
Supination: The anatomical position of the forearm, with the palm facing upwards.
Pronation: The forearm rotates inward so the palm faces downwards.
Inversion: The sole of the foot rotates inwards, so the medial edge is lifted off the ground.
Eversion: The sole of the foot rotates outwards so the lateral edge is lifted off the ground.

Other Notes

Joint angles can be measured with a goniometer.
Structures can exist at different levels of organization; e.g., "smooth muscle" can refer to a smooth muscle fiber or smooth muscle tissue.

Connective Tissue

Fibers add structural integrity
Ground substances contribute to sensory reception

Epithelial Tissue

Cells fit closely together
Supported by connective tissue
Avascular, but innervated
High regenerative capacity

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Stratified squamous: Thick and protective, found in skin
Granular: Cuboidal cells near membrane, apical cells lack nuclei, found in exocrine glands
Simple cuboidal: One cell thick, forms tubes and ducts, found in kidney tubules
Simple squamous: Flattened cells, found in capillaries and alveoli

Types of Connective Tissues

Adipose (fat): Provides insulation and energy storage
Under (supporting) epithelia: Provides structure and support for epithelial tissues
Ligaments: Connect bones to each other
Cartilage: Resists compression, cushions and supports body structures

Types of Cartilage

Hyaline: Most common, found in joints
Elastic: Can stretch and move, found in ears and nose
Fibrocartilage: Tough but mobile, found in pelvis joints

Types of Bone

Compact Bone: Dense and strong, provides support and protection
Spongy Bone: Ligher and less dense, provides support and allows for blood cell formation

Exocrine Glands

Release substances outside of the body
Example: Sweat glands

Endocrine Glands

Release substances (hormones) directly into the bloodstream
Example: Thyroid gland

Muscular Tissue

Moves the body via contraction
Provides support and movement

Nervous Tissue

Controls bodily functions
Responsible for thought, sensation, and movement
Found in brain and nerves

Bone Classification

Location
- Axial: contains skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum
- Appendicular: appendages, attaches to the axis; upper limbs, shoulder girdles, lower limbs, pelvis
Shape
- Long: wide end and narrow shaft
- Short: usually cubed
- Flat: sometimes curved
- Sesamoid - shaped like a sesame seed (round and small) - not directly connected to other bone
- Irregular: don't fit into other categories

Compact and Spongy Bone

Compact bone:
- Dense outer layer, strong and solid
- Appears smooth and solid
Spongy bone:
- Internal layer
- Trabeculae (strips of bone) form honeycomb-like structure with holes in the middle.
- Contains marrow

Structure of Long Bone

Sections of the bone
- Diaphysis: Thick compact bone wall, contains spongy bone and medullary (contains more openings due to marrow storage).
- Epiphysis: Thinner compact bone, lots of spongy bone inside.
- Metaphysis: The area between the epiphysis and the diaphysis.
- Medullary cavity: Contains spongy bone but has more openings because a lot of marrow is stored there.
Parts of the bone
- Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage, adds a softer, shock-absorbing surface, found at the ends.
- Epiphyseal line: Strip of compact bone, divides the epiphysis and diaphysis.

Functions of Bone

Support: forms the supportive framework of our entire body
Protection: protects important organs: lungs, heart, brain
Anchorage: provides anchorage for other structures - muscle attaching to bone
Mineral/ growth factor storage: calcium stored in bone, for safe keeping, used by the body.
Blood cell formation: occurs in the Marrow: place inside the bone to store fat (adipose), or make blood cells.
Triglyceride/ adipose (fat) storage.
Hormone production: helps with brain/ nerve communication.

Cartilage Types

Hyaline cartilage
- Most abundant of the skeletal cartilages.
- Found in articular, costal (rib), respiratory, and nasal cartilages.
- Good at resisting and absorbing compression.
Elastic cartilage
- Has more elastic fibers compared to Hyaline.
- Better at standing up to repeated bending.
- Found in external ear and epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
- Has great tensile strength (lots of thick collagen fibers).
- Located in sites that are subject to both pressure and stretch.
- Found in menisci of knee, intervertebral discs, and pubic symphysis.

Cartilage in the Growing Skelton

Hyaline cartilage makes up most of the fetal skeleton.
Resilient and elastic (lots of water).
Ideal for fast growth.
No nerves or blood vessels - avascular.
Damaged cartilage is slow to heal.
Cartilage in the skull is important because the bones need to be squashed a bit for the baby to come out.
Ossification/ growth of the bone happens in the fetus at about 8 weeks.
Newborns have cartilage in the areas of joints.

Fracture and Bone Disorders

Fracture: a break in the bone.
Common types of fractures:
- Comminuted fracture: When bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces.
- Greenstick fracture: Only occurs in children because their bones haven't fully ossified - one side is broken, but the other side bends.
- Pott fracture: Ankle fracture that affects both bones (forearm or leg).
- Colles fracture: Fracture of the distal end of the radius.

Intervertebral Disc

The outer area is called the annulus fibrosus, made up of fibrocartilage rings.
The center is called the nucleus pulposus, a gel-like consistency of water and protein.

Vertebral Column

Vertebrae connect to each other by:
- Superior and inferior articular process.
- Costal facets on the body and transverse process.
Regional characteristics of Vertebrae:
- Cervical: bifid process, transverse foramen/ foramina, smallest in size.
- Thoracic: costal/ rib facets.
- Lumbar (has the most weight): no bifid process, no transverse foramen, or costal facets.

Specialized Cervical Vertebrae

Atlas (C1)
- No vertebral body or spinous process.
Axis (C2)
- Has a dens (tooth-like projection).

Pelvic Bones

Hip (Coxal) Bones:
- Make up all 3 pelvic bones.
- They are connected anteriorly, not posteriorly.
False pelvis
- Above the pelvic brim.
- Part of the lower abdomen.
True pelvis
- Below the rim.
- Pelvic cavity.

Right Scapula, Anterior View and Posterior View

Acromion: Where the clavicle and scapula joint occurs.
Glenoid cavity: Where the upper limb attaches.
Subscapular fossa: The surface that is right up against the rib.

Skeleton of Right Upper Limb

Clavicle:
- "S" shaped.
- Acromial end connects to scapula.
- Sternal end connects to the manubrium.
Scapula:
- The medial border of the scapula is not connected to anything.
- Sits on top of the rib cage and is held in place by muscle.
**Upper Limb: **
- Shoulder to fingers.
- 30 bones.
- Arm (shoulder - elbow).

The Acetabulum:

The socket of the hip joint.
Formed by all three pelvic bones - ilium, ischium, and pubis.

The Obturator Foramen:

A large opening in the hip bone.
Allows for vessels like arteries, veins, and nerves to pass between the interior pelvic cavity.

Bones

Tibia and Fibula
- Head: Connects to the glenoid fossa / cavity of the Scapula = glenohumeral joint
- Intertubercular sulcus (groove): In between the tubercules
- Deltoid tuberosity: Rough deltoid, has a muscle attachment
- Radial, coronoid, Olecranon fossa: All components of the elbow joint
- Capitulum and Trochlea: Bones of attachment for the forearm
Sacrum and Coccyx:
- The sacral foramen allows nerves to pass through from the spinal cord.
Ribs
- 12 pairs total
- All connect to thoracic vertebrae
- 7 pairs of true ribs
  - Connect to the sternum by costal cartilage
- 5 pairs of false ribs
  - 8-10 connect to rib 7 costal cartilage
Elbow
- The knee joint is between the lateral and medial condyles of the femur and the lateral and medial condyles of the tibia
- Interosseous membrane: Connective tissue
Foot - Superior and Inferior View
- When you flex your arm, the forearm reaches closer to your humerus.

Bone Bone Disorders

Osteomalacia: Soft / weak bones due to poor mineralization
- Caused by calcium or vitamin D deficiency
Rickets: Analogous disease in children
- Poor mineralization of the bone affects how a child's bones grow
- Epiphyseal plate cannot calcify so long bones become enlarged
- Bones will not support a child's weight b/c cartilage is not as solid as actual bone
- Too much cartilage, not enough bone.
Osteoporosis: Bone resorption (breakdown of bone) > deposition (laying down new bone)
- Common in older adults (decreased sex hormones), mainly women
- Estrogen is responsible for making sex hormones - responsible for making deposition of new bone
- Affects women past menopause ( 50-60 years)

Demifacets on Thoracic Vertebrae

Present on each thoracic vertebra for rib articulation
Two demifacets per vertebra
Allow for greater mobility around the waist (better range of motion)

Fibula

Located on lateral side of the leg
Doesn't connect to femur directly
Head of fibula connects to the tibia, which is called the proximal tibiofibular joint
Forms part of the ankle joint with the tibia

Marrow

Found in the cavities of bone
Red marrow present in trabecular cavities of long and flat bones
Located in the medullary cavity
Responsible for blood cell production
Yellow marrow present in the medullary cavity of long bones
Consists mostly of fat storage
Yellow marrow can revert to red marrow in case of severe anemia

Humerus

Part of the upper limb, found between the elbow and shoulder
Forms the elbow joint with the ulna
When fully extended, the olecranon process of the ulna fits into the olecranon fossa on the humerus
Contains a trochlear notch which wraps around the trochlea of the humerus

Upper Limb

Consists of
- Forearm (elbow to wrist)
- Wrist (carpals)
- Hand (metacarpals and phalanges )

Lower Limb

Consists of
- Thigh (hip to knee)
- Leg ( knee to ankle)
- Ankle
- Foot
Carries the weight of the entire body
Subject to exceptional force due to locomotion

Axis (C2)

Has a dens (also called the odontoid process)
The dens projects through the vertebral foramen of C1 (atlas)
Permits rotation of the head via the atlantoaxial joint
The dens is held in place by the transverse ligament

Ossification

Process of cartilage turning into bone
Cartilage cells divide until they are replaced by bone
This helps bones grow longer

Bone Healing

Blood rushes to an injured area.
Fibrocartilage forms a callus in the injured area, replacing the blood.
The fibrocartilaginous callus is replaced by bone.
The bone heals.

Pronation

In the forearm, the radius and ulna are bones.
During pronation, the radius crosses over the ulna.
The ulna must be loose to allow for pronation.

Right Femur

The right femur is a bone in the right leg.

Joints and Articulations

Joints are also called articulations
Joints are where two or more bones connect
Joints provide mobility and hold the skeleton together

Classifications of Joints

Joints are classified by the material connecting the bones and their degree of movement

Fibrous Joints

Bones are joined by collagen fibers of connective tissue
Fibrous joints are immoveable or slightly moveable
Types of fibrous joints include sutures, syndesmosis, and interosseous membranes

Sutures

Sutures are found only in the skull
Sutures are immoveable

Syndesmosis

Syndesmosis joints are slightly moveable
Examples of syndesmosis joints are between the tibia and fibula, and between the tooth and socket of the alveolar process

Interosseous Membrane

Interosseous membranes are long sheets of connective tissue connecting two bones
Examples of interosseous membranes are between the diaphysis of the tibia and fibula

Cartilaginous Joints

Bones are joined by cartilage
Cartilaginous joints are immoveable or slightly moveable
Types of cartilaginous joints include synchondrosis and symphysis

Synchondrosis

Synchondrosis joints are united by hyaline cartilage
An example of a synchondrosis joint is where the first rib connects to the manubrium

Symphysis

Symphysis joints are united by fibrocartilage
An example of a symphysis joint is the pubic symphysis

Epiphyseal Cartilage

Epiphyseal cartilage will become bone in adults
Epiphyseal cartilage remains as cartilage in children and is the region where bones grow in length

Synovial Joints

Synovial joints have bones covered with articular cartilage , separated by a joint cavity and enclosed within a capsule
Synovial joints are freely moveable

Types of Synovial Joints

Types of synovial joints include plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket

Plane Joint

Plane joints provides a gliding motion
Plane joints are found in the carpal and tarsal bones, and between the superior and inferior articular processes

Hinge Joint

Hinge joints allow for flexion and extension movement
Hinge joints are found in the elbow, knee, and phalanges
Hinge joints allow one bone to wrap around the rounded edge of another bone

Pivot Joint

Pivot joints allow only rotation
Pivot joints are found in the radioulnar joint and between C1 and C2, and the atlanto-axial joint
The radioulnar joint allows for the radius to move along the ulna to make the pronation movement
- The dens is held in place by a ligament between C1 and C2 which allows rotational movement of C1 around the dens of C2

Condyloid Joint

Condyloid joints allow for flexion and extension, and adduction and abduction movement
Condyloid joints are found in the elbow, knees, and phalanges
Condyloid joints allow for movement in two planes

Saddle Joint

Saddle joints allow for a curved motion
Saddle joints are found in the carpal and metacarpals
Saddle joints allow for movement in two planes (biaxial)

Ball and Socket Joint

Ball and socket joints allow for all directional movement
Ball and socket joints are found in the hip and shoulders
Ball and socket joints involve a ball shaped structure fitting into a cup-shaped structure

Double-Jointed

Double-jointed people do not have extra joints
Double-jointed people have more flexible articular capsules and ligaments, which increases range of motion and decreases joint stability
Decreased joint stability can lead to increased injury risk and long-term problems, such as wear and tear

Common Joint Injuries

Common joint injuries include cartilage tears and sprains

Cartilage Tear

Cartilage tears are common overuse injuries, especially in the knee menisci
Fragments of cartilage can interfere with joint function
Cartilage tears can be treated with arthroscopic surgery
Cartilage is avascular and cannot repair itself due to lack of blood supply

Sprain

Sprains occur when a ligament is stretched or torn
Healing is slow due to poor vascularization in ligaments
Sprains are classified on a scale of 1-3 based on the severity of the tear
- Grade 1: slight tearing
- Grade 2: stretching
- Grade 3: complete tear
Grade 1 and 2 sprains can be treated with physiotherapy, while grade 3 sprains may require surgical reattachment or a ligament graft

Inflammatory and Degenerative Joint Conditions

Inflammatory and degenerative joint conditions include tendonitis and arthritis

Tendonitis

Tendonitis is caused by overuse or excessive rubbing from repetitive motion on a tendon
Tendonitis can be treated with rest, ice, anti-inflammatory drugs, and physiotherapy
Tendons connect muscle to bone and heal slowly
A partial or full tear of a tendon is called a strain

Arthritis

Arthritis is any condition that causes inflammation or pain in a joint
There are over 100 types of arthritis
Arthritis affects joint comfort and function
Causes of arthritis vary, including genetics, aging, and biomechanics
- Biomechanics refer to how someone walks, for example, walking with toes pointing inwards can affect the alignment of the knees and hips, leading to wear and tear on the cartilage in the synovial capsule and inflammation over time

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Description

Explore the fundamental concepts of anatomy and physiology, including the structure and function of the body. This quiz covers various branches of anatomy and the major body systems. Test your knowledge on anatomical terminology and the intricate details of human biology.