Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual PDF

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Ministry of Energy and Mines Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines Victoria British Columbia Canada December 31, 1998 Revised 2014-15 (minor correction update – December 2016) This manuscript is for educational purposes only. Nothing herein is to be regarded as indicating approval or disapproval of any specific product or practice. Foreword Every mine has to maintain a mine rescue team to help ensure the safety of workers and property on mine sites throughout B.C., Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This manual has been crafted to demonstrate the basic equipment, procedures, practices, and principles that mine rescue trainees need to know before they respond to incidents at surface and underground mining operations. Mine Rescue teams have bravely responded to incidents and disasters throughout northern and western Canada for more than a century. It is through their training and practice that they have been able to come back safe and sound. Likewise, mine officials must also be familiar with their roles and responsibilities in the event of an emergency. Proper instruction must be complemented by individual and collective efforts to master the skills, equipment, and knowledge needed to execute a mine emergency response. This manual and training course represent the first steps you will take toward being able to answer that call. There are all sorts of incidents and emergencies that Mine Rescue teams can encounter, including electrical fires, gas leaks, avalanches, and motor vehicle accidents. Mine Rescue can be dangerous work, especially if it is not performed properly. Rescuers are responsible first for their safety and the safety of their team, but some responses will also require that they tend to casualties in need of assistance. In consulting the most up-to-date research as well as experts in government and industry, the committee who created this manual have endeavoured to make certain that the information found in these pages is as reliable, applicable, and above all, safe as possible. Your Mine Rescue training will not end when you finish this manual and course. Being a part of a Mine Rescue team means committing to a practice regime with your fellow Mine Rescuers to establish the cohesion, communication, and trust needed to function in the stressful environment of an emergency response. At times you may be called upon to assist in responses at other mining operations or to emergencies off-site. Wherever your Mine Rescue training takes you, wear the “MINE RESCUE” sticker on your hat with the pride and responsibility that it deserves. Al Hoffman Chief Inspector of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Mines British Columbia Bruce Milligan Director, Occupational Health and Safety Yukon Workers' Compensation Yukon Peter Bengts Chief Inspector of Mines, Worker’s Safety & Compensation Commission Northwest Territories and Nunavut Contents Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1-1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................ 1-2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING.................................................................. 1-2 REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING.................................................................................. 1-2 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS............................................................................................................. 1-3 MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................... 1-3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................................................... 1-3 Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization.................................................................................................... 2-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 2-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS............................................................................................................ 2-2 THE MINE RESCUE TEAM.................................................................................................................. 2-2 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS............................................................................................ 2-5 DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES......................................................................................................... 2-5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT................................................................................................ 2-7 FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE...................................................................................................................... 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS................................................................................... 2-8 PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS..................................................................... 2-8 Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions.................................................................................................... 3-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 3-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................................... 3-2 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR............................................................................................................... 3-4 ICE TRAVEL....................................................................................................................................... 3-4 THERMAL STRESS............................................................................................................................. 3-6 Chapter 4 Electrical Hazards................................................................................................................. 4-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 4-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................................... 4-2 INJURIES CAUSED BY SHOCKS AND ELECTROCUTIONS....................................................................... 4-5 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS.................................................. 4-8 GUIDELINES FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES.................................................................................... 4-9 Chapter 5 Gases and Hazardous Atmospheres...................................................................................... 5-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 5-2 i CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................................... 5-2 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS DURING AND AFTER FIRES....................................................................... 5-21 Chapter 6 Rescue Tools........................................................................................................................ 6-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 6-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS........................................................................................................... 6-2 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................................. 6-2 ROTATING TOOLS............................................................................................................................. 6-3 PUSHING, PULLING, AND LIFTING TOOLS.......................................................................................... 6-3 PRYING AND SPREADING TOOLS....................................................................................................... 6-4 STRIKING TOOLS............................................................................................................................... 6-4 CUTTING TOOLS............................................................................................................................... 6-5 ENERGY SOURCES............................................................................................................................. 6-5 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE AND SPILL TOOLS................................................................................... 6-6 FIRE APPLIANCES.............................................................................................................................. 6-6 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS................................................................................................................... 6-7 Chapter 7 Gas Detection Instruments................................................................................................... 7-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 7-2 SELECTING GAS DETECTION EQUIPMENT.......................................................................................... 7-2 GAS DETECTOR TYPES....................................................................................................................... 7-3 PRACTICAL SKILLS FOR GAS DETECTION............................................................................................ 7-5 Chapter 8 Respiratory Protective Equipment........................................................................................ 8-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 8-2 APPARATUS CONCEPTS..................................................................................................................... 8-3 SELF-RESCUERS................................................................................................................................. 8-4 SELF-CONTAINED SELF-RESCUERS (SCSR).......................................................................................... 8-6 SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS....................................................................................... 8-8 CYLINDER TESTING AND CHARGING.................................................................................................. 8-9 Chapter 9 Oxygen Therapy................................................................................................................... 9-1 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 9-2 SAFE STORAGE, TRANPSORT, AND USE............................................................................................. 9-2 WHEN TO USE OXYGEN THERAPY..................................................................................................... 9-3 BENEFITS OF OXYGEN THERAPY........................................................................................................ 9-3 ii OXYGEN THERAPY EQUIPMENT........................................................................................................ 9-4 INSPECTING CYLINDERS AND ASSEMBLING COMPONENTS............................................................... 9-7 ADMINISTERING OXYGEN................................................................................................................. 9-7 SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE................................................................................................................. 9-8 OXYGEN CYLINDER DURATION.......................................................................................................... 9-8 Chapter 10 Fire................................................................................................................................... 10-1 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................... 10-2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT.............................................................................................. 10-2 FIRE BEHAVIOUR............................................................................................................................ 10-3 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES............................................................................................................... 10-9 PHASES OF FIRE............................................................................................................................ 10-10 HAZARDS OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT................................................................................................. 10-11 VENTILATION................................................................................................................................ 10-17 EQUIPMENT FIRES........................................................................................................................ 10-18 BLEVE (BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOUR EXPLOSION)........................................................... 10-18 Chapter 11 Rope Rescue..................................................................................................................... 11-2 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................... 11-3 PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT............................................................................................. 11-4 HARDWARE.................................................................................................................................... 11-8 KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES....................................................................................................... 11-12 HARNESSES................................................................................................................................... 11-16 ANCHORS..................................................................................................................................... 11-36 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES......................................................................................................... 11-41 BELAYS......................................................................................................................................... 11-47 RAPPELLING.................................................................................................................................. 11-51 Chapter 12 Underground Operations.................................................................................................. 12-1 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................... 12-2 A GUIDE FOR PLANNING MINE EMERGENCY PROCEDURES............................................................. 12-2 FIRE CONTROL AND VENTILATION.................................................................................................. 12-4 INSTRUMENTS USED IN VENTILATION WORK.................................................................................. 12-8 MINE DRAWINGS............................................................................................................................ 12-9 UNDERGROUND MINE FIRES — CONTROL AND SUPPRESSION...................................................... 12-11 iii Chapter 13 Operations Skills............................................................................................................... 13-1 OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................... 13-2 USE OF PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS......................................................................................... 13-2 SEARCH AND RESCUE...................................................................................................................... 13-2 STANDARD SEARCH PROCEDURE.................................................................................................... 13-3 CASUALTY MANAGEMENT.............................................................................................................. 13-5 EXTRICATION FROM VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT............................................................................ 13-5 SUPPLEMENTARY RESCUE TECHNIQUES......................................................................................... 13-6 Appendix................................................................................................................................................... iv v Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1 INTRODUCTION This manual is designed to provide basic training in the rescue procedures to be followed in the event of an incident requiring emergency response at a surface or underground mining operation. The mining laws of all jurisdictions in Western Canada require that trained, properly equipped mine rescue teams be maintained at all surface and underground mining operations. It is the management’s responsibility to appoint a qualified person as a trainer for mine rescue training and to ensure that all mine rescue team members practice as a team. The appointed rescue trainer is responsible for maintaining a log of dates, times, training material, and equipment used at practice sessions. All records must be signed off by employers and trainees. A properly planned training agenda should be constructed so as to achieve the maximum training results for the allotted training time, as stipulated by local legislation. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING The fundamental principles of mine rescue training are, in order of importance:  Ensuring the safety of self and rescue team  Endeavouring to rescue or ensuring the safety of trapped or injured workers  Protection of the mine property from further damage  Rehabilitation of the affected work area and salvage of equipment Through training, mine rescue teams will become familiar with:  Mine rescue equipment  Mining equipment that may be useful in an emergency (cranes, loaders, scoop trams, etc.)  Hazards involved in mine rescue work (toxic and flammable gases, electricity, rock‑falls, etc.)  The most common dangerous occurrences, such as those involving fire, machinery, or electricity REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING Mine rescue work is physically and mentally demanding, and at times dangerous. Members of mine rescue teams must not only have an intimate knowledge of their equipment but must also be physically sound and fit to perform strenuous work while wearing a breathing apparatus. In addition, they must maintain good judgement and temperament. They should be selected carefully and must receive thorough training. Frequent additional training and instruction should be given in an irrespirable atmosphere to ensure that both crew and equipment are in condition to respond to an emergency. Training exercises involving a recovery problem should be conducted occasionally. Many hours of training and practice are needed to develop a competent mine rescue team that can work effectively with other teams to accomplish rescue objectives in the event of a mine emergency. It is also most important that mine officials receive periodic instruction and training in the duties they must perform, both individually and collectively, should an incident arise requiring a mine rescue response. They must know where tools, equipment and materials can be obtained, both on the mine site and from outside sources. 1-2 All supervisory staff should be instructed that, in the absence of higher authority, they must take charge, and act on matters requiring immediate attention. They must notify all persons required to assist at a disaster, particularly the regulator responsible for the district in which the mine is located, the mine rescue team, and any other help that may be available. MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS Candidates for mine rescue training must meet the following minimum requirements:  Minimum age of 18 years  Speak, read, and write English*  Be in good physical and mental condition*  Be familiar with mining conditions, practices, hazards and equipment  Have no perforated eardrums (tympanic membrane)*  Hold a valid Standard First Aid Certificate with spinal immobilization training or its equivalent  Clean-shaven, with no facial hair to interfere with the seal on the breathing apparatus.  Hold any additional certifications as required by your jurisdiction Whether a candidate is trained in underground mine rescue, surface mine rescue, or first aid, the applicant must be mentally and physically capable and prepared to render assistance whenever called upon to do so. * = Subject to the discretion of the mine manager MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION The Basic Underground or Surface Mine Rescue Certificate will be issued to candidates who successfully complete the training course. The candidate must attain a grade of 70% upon examination to pass. Continuous participation in mine rescue service while maintaining the above minimum requirements will ensure that the certification does not expire. A rescuer may apply for an advanced certificate after five years of service in addition to fulfilling further competencies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Mine Rescue Manual has evolved from integrating revised editions of the General Underground Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1977‑2) and the Surface Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1981‑4). The manual was compiled by Mike Barber and Haley Kuppers, in cooperation with a steering committee drawn from the coal- and metal‑mining industries in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. The compilers gratefully acknowledge the contribution made by members of the steering committee in 2013–14, specifically: Jerrold Jewsbury Gerry Wong Nathan Pitre Lex Lovatt Ron Ratz British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines Teck Highland Valley Copper Diavik Diamond Mines (2012) Inc. Workers Safety and Compensation Commission of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Yukon Workers Compensation Health and Safety Board 1-3 Considerable assistance in creating and reviewing content for the manual was provided by:  East Kootenay Mining Industry Safety Association (B.C.)  North/Central/South Mine Rescue (B.C.)  Northern Mine Safety Forum  Yukon Mine Producers Group The manual also draws on a number of earlier publications, including:  The Handbook of Training in Mine Rescue and Recovery Operations, Ontario Ministry of Labour  Mine Rescue Crisis Response Manual, Yukon Territorial Government  Occupational First Aid Manual, British Columbia Workers’ Compensation Board  Electrical Safety for Policemen and Firemen, B.C. Hydro  Rigging for Rescue, Dynamic Rescue Systems  Operation Recharge Inspection and Maintenance Manual – Cartridge Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers, ANSUL  Manitoba Mine Rescue Training and Reference Manual, Manitoba Ministry of Mineral Resources  Alberta Mine Rescue Manual, Alberta Mine Safety Association  Saskatchewan Mine Emergency Response Program, Saskatchewan Labour Occupational Health and Safety  The Canadian Electrical Code, Canadian Standards Association  Various publications of American Congress of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), National Institute for Occupational Safety, and Health (NIOSH), Environment Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), and Health Canada A number of photos in this manual are used courtesy of the manufacturers and rights holders, including:  Draeger Canada  vRigger  AnimatedKnots.Com  Ferno Canada  Canadian Safety  Carleton Rescue Equipment  CMC Rescue  Gastec  Scott Safety  Biomarine Inc.  MSA Canada  Industrial Scientific  O-Two  Honeywell Analytics These sources are gratefully acknowledged. This manual is intended to cover basic mine rescue principles, techniques, and equipment. Familiarize yourself with site-specific procedures, manufacturer’s instructions, and other training programs available to supplement this course. 1-4 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization 2-1 OBJECTIVES Before learning the skills necessary to complete mine rescue operations, trainees must understand how teams and rescue operations are organized. Upon completing this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  Mine Rescue Team Structure  Communications by Team Members  Decision-making Processes  Personal Protective Equipment requirements  Fresh Air Bases/Zones  First Response to Hazardous Materials  Physical/Emotional Stress in Critical Incidents CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS A Mine Emergency Response Plan (MERP) is the company’s guide to all procedures and plans of action in the case of an emergency on-site. This plan describes roles and responsibilities for management, rescue teams, and support personnel. An Incident Management System, such as Incident Command System (ICS), allows for command, control, and co-ordination during emergency response. The incident management system is a component of a MERP. THE MINE RESCUE TEAM Mine rescue teams are called upon to respond to many different kinds of emergencies. Time will be an important factor, and the following practices will help teams work efficiently in an emergency: 1. The first and foremost is team structure. This leads to successful efforts in disciplines such as extrication techniques, first aid methods and firefighting procedures that require a team effort. 2. The team should plan and practice basic procedures prior to an emergency situation. The Captain The Captain is the No. 1 member on the team. Above all, the Captain must be a competent leader who has the confidence and respect of team members. The Captain must be in good physical and mental condition and experienced in every aspect of emergency response. The Captain’s responsibilities include:  Ensuring team is response-ready  Ensuring breathing apparatus and auxiliary equipment are response-ready  Ensuring safe operation of all rescue equipment  Communicating within the emergency response structure  Knowledge of all facilities at the mine and relevant fire, explosive, electrical, mechanical, and chemical hazards  Knowledge of ventilation principles  Knowledge of mine gases  Directing and assisting the work of team members at the scene  Determining and inspecting all aspects of a rescue operation  Establishing and maintaining incident scene security and control 2-2 The Vice-Captain The Vice Captain of a surface mine rescue team is the No. 2 member. In underground teams, the ViceCaptain is the No. 5 member. In the event that the Captain is unable to perform the assigned responsibilities, the Vice-Captain must take control of the team and therefore must have the same qualifications as the Captain. Vice-Captains are also responsible for monitoring members of the team and warning the Captain if any member shows signs of distress or fatigue during a response. They must also make certain that team members rotate while carrying a stretcher over distances to prevent fatigue. Team Members A standard mine rescue team has six members including the Captain. The sixth member of an underground team is the Co-ordinator and provides direction from the surface incident command centre to the underground team Captain. All team members are responsible for recognizing hazards and relaying that information to other team members. The team must be rested regularly and be constantly observed for signs of distress in any member. Work must be distributed as evenly as possible among all members. Team Captains will delegate duties among the other team members, such as:  Exploring affected area of the mine  Rope work and rigging  Firefighting  First Aid  Extrication Teams may add members during a response based on their requirements or the members’ specific skill set. Any additional team members must have a number assigned to them in sequence beyond the six original members. Mutual Aid Large incidents may require assistance from other mines or emergency agencies. This collaboration is known as mutual aid and is a component of a MERP. When collaborating with mine rescue teams, it is imperative to follow the same numbering format for team designations. This will ensure that communications between incident management and each responding team are aligned with the MERP and that all responsibilities are assigned in an orderly manner. If extra personnel are added to a team, each rescuer will be assigned team numbers continuing from the basic six (team member 7, 8, 9, etc.). Mine Rescue Unit The mine rescue unit consists of a minimum of three mine rescue teams summoned to a mine disaster. If the operation extends beyond six hours, additional teams must be called in. To reduce fatigue, the teams rotate to allow one team at work, one team on hand as backup, and the third team at rest. Typical rotations for a three-, six-, and nine-team units are as follows: Active Team (Max. 2 hrs.) A-team B-team C-team Back-up Team B-team C-team A-team Team at Rest C-team A-team B-team 2-3 Fig 2.1: This table shows a rotation of mine rescue teams in a six-team arrangement. The arrangement allows for each rotation to have six hours on duty (two hours active, two hours standby and two hours reserve) followed by six hours of rest. DATE: TIME TEAM # DESCRIPTION 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY 2 STAND BY ACTIVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 RESERVE ACTIVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 6 RESERVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 5 RESERVE STAND BY RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: Fig. 2.2: This table shows a rotation of Mine Rescue teams in a nine-team arrangement. With a nine-team rotation, the rest time will be extended to match the teams deployed to the mine emergency. DATE: TIME DESCRIPTION TEAM # 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 2 STAND BY ACTIVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 5 6 7 8 9 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: 2-4 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS All members of a mine rescue team must observe strict discipline and must obey all directions given to them by the Team Captain. Primary communication is done via electronic devices, such as phones or intrinsically safe radios where required. Surface team members should all carry whistles for secondary communication. On underground teams, the Captain and the Vice‑Captain will both carry a horn, bell, whistle, or use other site-specific methods or devices. A standard set of signals has been established. One Two Three (Distress) Four (Attention) Five (Retreat) Standard Code of Signals To advance if stopped; to stop if in motion. To rest. This signal will often be given by the Vice-Captain as he is observing the team members during travel and will be first to notice signs of distress. At this signal, all team members will look at the person giving the signal and receive further instructions At this signal, the team will immediately retreat in the direction from which they have come. The Vice-Captain (underground) may lead the team in retreat for short distances through areas already explored, but should not lead the team into unexplored areas. As soon as circumstances permit, the Captain should resume the responsibility of leading the team. DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES Mine rescue responsibilities can be very demanding. Mine rescue members may be the first trained personnel to arrive at the incident scene. They are required to:  Control the scene  Ensure the MERP is initiated  Ensure the safety of self and team, casualties, and bystanders  Assist with casualty extrication and first aid  Fight fires  Control chemical spills Response and Size Up Response begins when a rescue team is alerted to an incident. It involves safely travelling to and arriving at the incident scene, then staging and securing equipment and vehicles. Response elements include:  Preparation: Ensuring equipment, including PPE, is in its designated location; familiarity with facilities, response procedures, and pre-incident plans  Method of alert/notification: Alarms, two-way radio, telephone, pager  Establish communication within the rescue team and between team and command structure  Safe travel to incident: Seatbelts, route, site specific traffic rules, exiting the vehicle  Arrival at the scene: o Accountability: Under the command structure, account for the responding rescue team members first then for all personnel at the incident scene. o Freelancing: Acting independently of command instruction is unacceptable and must not be tolerated. 2-5 Identify the Problem Size up is a systematic process of gathering information and situational evaluation that continues throughout the operation. Size up is essential to accomplish a safe and efficient rescue operation. There are four parts to size up: 1. Information gathered from the initial call: o Nature and location of emergency o Number of people/injuries involved o Weather conditions o Time of day o Equipment involved and access to the scene 2. Details observed en route: o Power blackouts o Smoke in the direction of the emergency o Traffic (unusual flow or congestion) and bystanders 3. Details observed at the scene: o Signs of hazardous conditions observed while establishing perimeter o Confirm / compare observations to information given in the initial call o Gasoline or fuel, chemical release or spill o Location of casualties o Actions that may have been taken by people already at the scene 4. Information gathered during size up is either factual (known or confirmed) or probable (assumptions made based on situation). For example, building occupancy based on time of day would be classified as probable. Hazard assessment involves identifying and evaluating hazards that may be encountered during the rescue operation. These hazards include:  Fire  Hazardous atmospheres (e.g., chemical hazards, toxic gases, oxygen displacement)  Energy sources (e.g., electrical, gas, nuclear)  Physical (e.g., structure, traffic, topography)  Biological  Environmental  Evaluate all influencing factors (e.g., time, location, environment, weather) Formulate an objective based on known information and resources  Determine what resources are required to accomplish the task (e.g., offensive or defensive)  Risk-based decision-making based on the fundamental principles of mine rescue Select one or more alternatives from the available options  Choose priorities based on the task and the resources available. Take appropriate action  Conduct all activities in a manner that ensures the safety of team members, casualties, and bystanders. Analyze results  Continuous process throughout the response  Be prepared to choose an alternative action if results are unsatisfactory. 2-6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT The environment in which mine rescue teams perform their duties demands that they be provided with the appropriate personal protective equipment. The provision and use of appropriate protective equipment will not, by themselves, assure individual safety. All protective equipment components have limitations that must be recognized so that users will not overextend their range of protection. Extensive training in the care, use, and maintenance of protective equipment is essential to assure that it will provide optimum protection. All members should be aware of the type of equipment needed for different situations and know where to find it. All equipment used must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations.  Head protection  Eye and face protection  Hearing protection  Respiratory protection  Hand protection  Foot protection  Protective clothing  Specialized equipment and tools (e.g., chainsaw chaps, extrication tools) FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE A fresh‑air base/zone is an area in which good respirable air has been established and can be maintained indefinitely. It is the point of departure for the mine rescue team and no one should proceed beyond the fresh‑air base/zone without wearing respiratory protection. In choosing the base/zone, consideration should be given to providing the following:  A clean area with good lighting  A safe location as close to the incident as possible  An area for briefing and debriefing mine rescue teams  Adequate space to perform the necessary work  Necessary tools and supplies to carry out the work at hand For underground fresh-air bases, consideration should also be given to make sure that:  The travel way from the base to surface must always be assured of good air.  Underground-to-surface communication is uninterrupted. 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Rescue members should be competent in site-specific response procedures. In the event of any incident involving hazardous materials, rescuers can refer to:  The Emergency Response Guidebook for Incidents Involving Hazardous Materials  Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or Information Sheets provided by the manufacturer for all products on-site  CANUTEC (Canadian Transport Emergency Centre, a 24-hour national emergency response advisory service) and WISER (Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders)  On-site expertise PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS A critical incident is an event that is outside the range of usual human experience and is psychologically traumatic to the person. Critical incidents may produce a wide range of stress reactions, which can appear immediately at the scene, a few hours later or within a few days of the event. Stress reactions usually occur in four different categories:  Cognitive (thinking)  Physical (body)  Emotional (feelings)  Behavioural (actions) The more reactions experienced, the greater the impact on the individual. The longer the reactions last, the more potential there is for permanent harm. These stresses can cause a wide variety of reactions: Category Symptoms Cognitive Emotional Physical Behavioural Poor concentration Poor attention span Indecision Loss of emotional control Depression Guilt Muscle tremors Gastrointestinal distress Headaches Excessive silence Withdrawal from contact Change in eating habits Memory problems Difficulty with calculations Slowed problem solving Feeling lost or overwhelmed Anxiety/Fear Grief Chest pains Difficulty breathing Elevated blood pressure Atypical behaviour Sleep disturbance Change in work habits These conditions result from the effects of the body’s chemical emergency response system. Following the completion of a mine rescue emergency response, mine rescue teams must hold a debriefing. A Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) or other counselling procedures should be conducted with all personnel directly involved in a Critical Incident. The debriefing should be held immediately at the end of the emergency response and be facilitated by qualified professionals. 2-8 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions 3-1 OBJECTIVES Mine rescue teams should be aware of the special dangers associated with environmental conditions. This chapter will provide a basic understanding of:  Avalanche terms, concepts, and equipment  Ice travel  Thermal stress CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS Mines operating in avalanche-prone areas must develop an avalanche emergency response plan tailored to their mine. Mine rescue personnel may be required to perform emergency response activities that expose them to avalanche hazards. This chapter is intended to only provide basic avalanche awareness. A qualified avalanche safety officer must be identified, consulted, and lead the safe emergency response in an active avalanche situation. The avalanche safety officer must conduct an avalanche risk assessment and establish active avalanche safety measures prior to planning emergency operations. An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface that can occur at any time provided the right conditions are present. Avalanches have three main parts:  Starting zone (point of origin): Where the unstable snow first breaks away. An avalanche path may have several starting zones. Characteristics of starting zones include: incline, slope aspect, exposure to wind, elevation, exposure to sun, natural ground condition.  Track (zone of transition): Below the starting zone, where the avalanche accelerates and typically reaches maximum destructive potential. It will have the potential to overrun terrain features and previous avalanche tracks. Avalanche areas can contain one or more tracks. These tracks may be poorly or clearly defined.  Run-out zone: Where the avalanche decelerates and finally comes to rest. It can be identified as a zone where the bulk of the snow is deposited. Avalanches may occur anywhere given the following conditions:  Geography, such as the natural topography of the area, engineered land forms, and slope orientation.  Snow accumulates on a moderate to steep slope (30°–45°). Avalanches rarely start on slopes steeper than 45° as snow sloughs off continuously rather than accumulating.  Snow conditions, such as: o Snow pack (accumulation) o Mass o Layers of snow and bonding between facet Fig 3.1 Slope steepness and avalanches layers o Environmental effects: Variation in temperature, wind, humidity 3-2  An external event that triggers the slide. These can be: o Natural: New snow, transported snow (wind), temperature changes, sun, rain, thawing and animals. o Human: Explosives, working on a slope, working below a slope, mobile equipment, and recreational activities. o Trigger points: Snow conditions, shallow areas/variable depth snow packs, points of weakness (e.g., trees, rock outcrops) may all contribute to the development of avalanche conditions. Two types of avalanche are commonly recognized: Loose Snow Avalanches may consist of dry powder snow or wet snow. Dry snow avalanches are most common in winter after storms and rare in spring or summer. Wet snow avalanches consist of heavy, wet, sun-heated or rainrotted snow or wet new snow and are most common in spring and summer, particularly on south-facing slopes. These avalanches:  Start from a point  Are set in motion progressively  Require snow with poor cohesion, similar to that of dry sand  Are usually confined to surface layers and therefore relatively small Slab Avalanche Loose Snow Avalanche Slab Avalanches occur when a slab of fairly cohesive layers of snow, poorly bonded to the snow underneath, breaks off along a fracture line. These avalanches are by far the most dangerous. They are set in motion simultaneously, over a large area and may start in either shallow or deep snow layers. Safety in Avalanche Zones The successful rescue of a person buried in an avalanche very often depends upon actions taken by unburied survivors. Teams performing rescue operations in an avalanche area must be mentally prepared for the possibility that they too may be overtaken by an avalanche. If crossing an avalanche track cannot be avoided, take the following precautions:  Select the shortest possible route high on the slope or low in the run-out zone  Plan an escape route.  Wear mitts and hats. Tighten clothing and smaller packs. Loosen larger packs in case they need to be quickly removed.  Assign a spotter at the top and bottom of the track and agree on a warning signal.  Cross quickly. If the crossing is narrow, one person crosses at a time. Otherwise, maintain space between rescuers to minimize the risk of exposure to an avalanche track. 3-3 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR Probe, Avalanche transceiver (beacon), and Shovel: These three items work together and are the minimum required equipment for every avalanche rescuer. For proper use of avalanche rescue gear, refer to manufacturer’s guidelines. L-R: Probe, Shovel, Transceiver (bottom) ICE TRAVEL Some mining operations in remote northern locations are accessed by ice roads built on frozen lakes and rivers. Prior to travelling on ice The thickness of the ice must be tested frequently in various locations. The smallest thickness is what is used to determine the strength of the ice. Table 3.1 indicates the weight that will be supported by varying thicknesses of clear blue lake-ice, provided the load remains in motion.  Type of ice: o River or lake (movement of water beneath ice). Clear blue river-ice, with moving water beneath it, is not as strong as lake-ice. Loads should be reduced by at least 15% o Clear or natural ice (black or blue hue). This is considered the strongest form of ice. o Slush ice (white hue) is snow saturated with water. It is commonly found as new ice floating after a heavy snowfall. It is much weaker than clear blue lake-ice.  Cracks in ice may affect its ability to support a load. While traveling on ice  As a vehicle travels on ice it creates a resonance wave in the underlying water. The weight and speed of the vehicle, as well as the depth of the water, influence the size and speed of the wave. The resonance wave can affect the strength of the ice, potentially resulting in a blowout, or an ice failure.  Unless otherwise posted, the speed limit on ice roads is 25 km/h for a loaded vehicle and 35 km/h for an empty vehicle. 3-4 The following table shows the maximum allowable mass of a vehicle in motion for ice of various thicknesses. Gold’s Formula for determining the maximum allowable mass is: 𝑀 = 4 × ℎ2 where M is the mass of the vehicle (kg) and h is the thickness of the ice (cm) Ice Thickness (cm) 2.5 3.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 Ice Thickness – Clear Blue Lake Ice Capacity (kg) Ice Thickness (cm) Capacity (kg) 25 37.5 5,625 49 40 6,400 100 42.5 7,225 225 45 8,100 400 47.5 9,025 625 50 10,000 900 52.5 11,025 1,225 55 12,100 1,600 57.5 13,225 2,025 60 14,400 2,500 62.5 15,625 3,025 65 16,900 3,600 67.5 18,225 4,225 70 19,600 4,900 72.5 21,025 Ice Thickness (cm) 75 77.5 80 82.5 85 87.5 90 92.5 95 97.5 100 102.5 105 107.5 110 Capacity (kg) 22,500 24,025 25,600 27,225 28,900 30,625 32,400 34,225 36,100 38,025 40,000 42,025 44,100 46,225 48,400 Table 3.1 – Ice Strength 3-5 THERMAL STRESS Thermal stress refers to a range of physiological reactions to adverse temperature conditions. There are many factors that contribute to these stresses. Mine rescuers must be able to recognize and adequately respond to these conditions. Hypothermia is a condition of lowered internal body-core temperature (exposure sickness). Failure to recognize symptoms of hypothermia is the leading cause of death for people in the outdoors. Hypothermia is caused by overexposure to a cold environment and can develop very quickly if proper precautions are not taken. Hypothermia results from chilling by cold, wind, or water such that the body loses heat faster than it can produce it. Factors contributing to the development of hypothermia include:  Inadequate clothing  Alcohol or drugs in the body Hypothermia and Water Immersion  Wetness (perspiration, rain)     Exhaustion, dehydration, and lack of nutrition Wind and water Temperature Duration of exposure Symptoms of Hypothermia Visible symptoms indicate the onset of hypothermia. Its advance is marked by recognizable stages. Stage Core Temperature (C) Mild Hypothermia 37.2–36.1 36.1–35.0 Moderate Hypothermia 35.0–33.9 33.9–32.2 Severe Hypothermia 32.2–30.0 30.0–27.8 27.8–25.6 25.6–23.9 If water temperature (C) is... 0 1–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30 Exhaustion or Unconsciousness < 15 minutes 15–30 minutes 30–60 minutes 1–2 hours 2–7 hours 3–12 hours Indefinitely Expected survival time 15–45 minutes 30–90 minutes 1–3 hours 1–6 hours 2–40 hours 3 hours–indefinitely Indefinitely Signs & Symptoms Normal, shivering can begin Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with hands, shiver can be mild to severe, hands numb Shivering, intense, lack of muscle coordination becomes apparent, movements slow and labored, stumbling pace, mild confusion, may appear alert. Use sobriety test: if unable to walk a 30 foot straight line, the person is hypothermic. Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia starts to appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands, stumbles frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn. Shivering stops, exposed skin blue of puffy, muscle coordination very poor, inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behavior, but may be able to maintain posture and appearance of awareness Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse and respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation Unconscious, heart beat and respiration erratic, pulse may not be palpable Pulmonary oedema, cardiac and respiratory failure, death. Death may occur before this temperature is reached. 3-6 Bodily Heat Loss The head and neck are the most critical heat-loss areas. Other body areas have high rates of heat loss while a subject is holding still in cold water. Infrared pictures show that the sides of the chest (where there is little muscle or fat) are the major routes for heat loss from the warm chest cavity. The groin area also loses much heat due to the large blood vessels near the surface. If an effort is made to conserve body heat, these regions deserve special attention. Fig 3.2: This infrared image of a body shows high-heat areas (red) and low-heat areas (blue) Cold Water Survival Techniques Mine rescuers that work near water require personal floatation devices (PFD). The onset of hypothermia is much quicker for people immersed in cold water. These two techniques can extend predicted survival times: H.E.L.P. (Heat Escape Lessening Position) This technique for cold water survival protects the parts of the body that lose heat fastest. It increases predicted survival time by up to 50%. This position requires a floatation device that maintains upper-body buoyancy. Huddle Position Predicted survival time can be increased by up to 50% if survivors huddle together. In this position, the sides of the survivors’ chests are held close together to prevent heat loss. In cold water ( 2,000mA Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe burns. Death is probable. Any electrical hazards must be controlled before approaching a casualty. Electrical energy casualties will require prompt and appropriate medical treatment. Factors Affecting Severity of Injury It is the current (amperage) that kills or injures. But the voltage, which pushes the current through the body, also has an important effect. Persons exposed to household voltages may suffer a muscle spasm and become locked-on to the electrical source until the current is turned off, or until they are dragged clear by the weight of their body falling away from the contact. Relatively long periods of contact with low voltage current cause many electrical fatalities. At very high voltages, such as from power lines, the casualty is often quickly blown clear of the circuit. This results in less internal damage, such as heart failure, but serious surface burns where the current enters and leaves the body. Exposure to a large electric arc can result in injury from the intense heat or from ultraviolet rays, which can cause serious eye damage. Path of electricity through the body Degree of skin resistance Length of exposure Pressure of body against source Current Voltage Frequency AC/DC 4-5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES Combustible Materials Fires involving electrical equipment often result from the presence of combustible materials. For example, most fires that break out in electrical generating plants originate in fuel systems, oil systems, flammable gaseous atmospheres, combustible dust, accumulated waste material, or in buildings constructed of combustible material. Faulty Electrical Equipment Electricity is safe in normal operating conditions. However, hazards are created when electrical equipment or wires have become faulty due to:  Wear or other deterioration  Improper installation  Inadequate maintenance  Improper use  Damage or breakage  Lightning Any one of these factors may cause arcing or overheating of electrical equipment. Substation and Generator Fires Substations and generating facilities contain transformers, large quantities of oil, energized electrical equipment and, in some cases, cylinders of compressed gas. Some older transformers still in service might contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), many of which release toxic by-products when heated. Upon arrival at a substation or generator fire, rescuers should stand ready to protect adjacent properties. Authorized personnel will inform rescuers when the substation has been made electrically safe. Once electrical energy isolation is completed and locked out, rescuers can then proceed to extinguish the fire. Electrical Arc Flash Hazard An arc flash hazard can exist when energized electrical conductors or circuit parts are exposed or are within equipment in a guarded or enclosed condition. The hazard is present when a person is using electrical equipment improperly, or when someone breaches the safe limits of approach. Under normal operating conditions, enclosed energized equipment that has been properly installed and maintained should not pose an arc flash hazard. 4-6 Vehicles in Contact with Live Wires Emergency Situation A fallen wire lies under a vehicle with occupants… The operator is unhurt and can move the vehicle… A fallen wire lies across a vehicle with occupants… If the operator is injured and cannot move the vehicle… Action to be taken by emergency personnel Do not touch any part of the vehicle. You could be electrocuted, even if you are wearing rubber gloves. Instruct occupants to stay where they are until electrical crews arrive. Instruct the operator to move the vehicle clear of the wire, and clear of any pools of water which may be energized by the live wire. Make sure you are not in a position to be injured if the wire springs up after being released when the vehicle moves. Make sure no one else is standing in a dangerous location. Do not touch any part of the vehicle. Instruct occupants to stay where they are until electrical crews arrive. Instruct the operator to stay in the vehicle until electrical crews arrive. Direct contact with power lines is not necessary to pose an arcing hazard as power can arc from the lines to a crane or other piece of equipment. 4-7 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS Work Groups Welders Hazards Responders should know all welders use electrical systems to “Weld, Cut, or Braze”. They must be aware of the electrical hazards and take positive steps to eliminate and/or mitigate those hazards. Crane Operators Contact with overhead power lines is a major cause of fatalities in the industry. Electricity can travel from a power line to a worker touching any part of the crane or the load. Haul Trucks and Other Heavy Equipment Tires can explode during or after contact with power lines / lightning. If a vehicle contacts overhead power lines there may be a massive electrical current flowing through the vehicle and its tires: This can cause the tires to explode on contact or could cause the tires to start burning inside. Rescue teams must consider their approach angle, safe distances, and the size of the tire. This creates a build-up of gases and heat which could cause the tire to explode at a later time, even as much as 24 hours after the incident. The resulting explosion could potentially injure persons in the proximity with flying debris. The vehicle should be isolated for a period of time at a safe distance to avoid injury. Ground Engagement Tools (excavators, dozers, graders, etc.) Buried power and communication lines pose a hazard to operators of equipment used during trenching and excavation activities. Operators need to be aware of the hazards posed by penetration of energized power lines and take positive steps to eliminate the hazard before digging. Photo 4-8 GUIDELINES FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES Always assume that all electrical wires and equipment are energized until proven otherwise. Mine rescue teams must ensure that energy isolation is complete prior to conducting rescue operations.             When arriving at the incident scene, stage response vehicles at a distance that avoids exposure to electrical hazards. Control the incident scene to eliminate unauthorized access and prevent exposure to electrical hazards. Wait for authorized personnel to isolate power. Use lock-out/tag-out devices when working near energy sources as per site-specific isolation procedures. Guard against electrical shocks, burns, and eye injuries from electrical arcs. Establish an exclusion zone equal to the length of the distance between two poles (i.e., one span) in all directions from downed power lines. Be aware that damaged electrical lines can move significant distances by themselves when energized or as a result of the wire’s coil memory. Be aware that other wires may have been weakened and may fall at any time. Exercise caution while raising or lowering ladders, elevated work platforms, and booms near power lines. Do not touch any vehicle or apparatus that is in contact with electrical wires. Do not use solid or straight water streams on fires in energized electrical equipment. Be aware that wire-mesh, chain-link, barbed wire, and steel-rail fences can be energized by wires outside of your field of view. Where wires are down, heed any tingling sensation, as this indicates a ground gradient. 4-9 4-10 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 5 Gases and Hazardous Atmospheres 5-1 OBJECTIVES Mine rescue teams will find themselves in environments where toxic and hazardous substances pose threats to their health. Being able to identify and respond safely to these substances is a fundamental aspect of mine rescue. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate understanding of:  Terms, concepts, and formulae  The properties and effects of mine gases Introduction Many gases found in a mine during normal operating conditions can have a harmful effect on the human body if inhaled for a period of time in concentrations above the recognized safe limit. Emergencies such as fires can emit large quantities of toxic or explosive gases and create an oxygendeficient atmosphere. The first priority for miners at the time of a mine fire is to protect themselves from these conditions. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS On The Threshold of Understanding: Toxic Chemicals Deadly concentrations of toxic gases may be only a few parts per million (ppm). For many of us, 1 ppm is about as hard to visualize as the national debt. The following examples will help grasp what one part per million really represents and also help you think in metric units. One ppm is the same as:  1 metre step in 1,000 kilometres  1 millilitre per 1,000 litres of liquid  1 square centimetre in 100 square metres  1 cent in 10,000 dollars Threshold limit values (TLVs) are airborne concentrations of substances and to which most workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect. Because of the wide variation in individual susceptibility, however, a small percentage of people may experience discomfort from some substances at concentrations at or below the threshold limit. A smaller percentage may be affected more seriously by aggravation of a pre‑existing condition or by development of an occupational illness. The categories of TLVs are specified, as follows: Threshold Limit Value – Time Weighted Average (TLV‑TWA) is the time‑weighted average concentration for a normal eight‑hour workday and a 40‑hour workweek, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse health effects. Note: When TWA is not indicated, refer to the 8-hour TLV. A Concentration Equivalent (Ceq) formulae must be used for shifts longer than an eight‑hour workday and a 40‑hour workweek. The formula used depends on the jurisdiction in which the mine is located. 5-2 Threshold Limit Value – Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV‑STEL) is the concentration to which workers can be exposed for a short period of time without suffering from:  Irritation  Chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or  Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue or materially reduce work efficiency, provided that the daily TLV‑TWA is not exceeded. The STEL is not a separate independent exposure limit. Rather, it supplements the time-weighted average (TWA) limit where there are recognized acute effects from a substance whose toxic effects are primarily of a chronic nature. STELs are recommended only where toxic effects have been reported from high short‑term exposures in either humans or animals. A STEL is defined as a 15‑minute exposure which should not be exceeded at any time during a work day even if the eight‑hour time‑weighted average is within the TLV. Exposures at the STEL should not be longer than 15 minutes and should not be repeated more than four times per day. There should be at least 60 minutes between successive exposures at the STEL. A period other than 15 minutes may be recommended when this is warranted by observed biological effects. Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV‑C) is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure. Combined Threshold Limit Values The air in a mine may contain a combination of different gases, which when combined may cause adverse effects and therefore must be taken into account. When two or more hazardous substances have a similar toxicological effect on the same target or system, their combined effect, rather than that of either individually, should be given primary consideration. The equation for determining the combined TLV is: 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛 + +⋯ = 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇𝑛 Where C is the concentration and T is the threshold limit value. If Dose is greater than 1, the TLV for the mixture has been exceeded. Median Lethal Dose (LD 50) refers to the dose of a toxic substance that would be fatal for 50% of a test population. Median Lethal Concentration (LC 50) refers to how concentrated a toxic substance must be in an atmosphere to be fatal for 50% of a test population. Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) refers to a condition posing immediate danger to life or health, or a condition posing an immediate threat of severe exposure to contaminants. If a concentration of a contaminant is above the IDLH, only positive-pressure breathing apparatus should be used to enter such an atmosphere or to move someone through that atmosphere. 5-3 Airborne particulate concentrations are generally measured in milligrams per cubic metre of air (mg/m3) and gaseous concentrations are measured as parts per million or % by volume. Lower and Upper Explosive Limits refer to the minimum (LEL) and maximum (UEL) concentrations of a gas or vapour in air that will ignite when exposed to an ignition source provided there is sufficient oxygen to support combustion. Relative density (vapour density or specific gravity) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance under specified conditions. For liquids and solids the standard is usually water. For gases the standard is often air. Fig 5.1 Relative density and Explosive range for Methane The pH scale is a means of measuring a substance’s acidity or alkalinity. The scale is broken down into 14 degrees. Pure water has a pH of 7. A pH below 7 indicates that a substance is acidic, while a pH above 7 indicates that a substance is basic or alkaline. Both acidic and basic substances are corrosive, but the severity increases the further away one gets from a pH of 7. Regulatory requirements and site-specific procedures dictate special precautions required for any gases stored or transported in pressurized containers. 5-4 NAME OF GAS Air Gas Mixture (AIR) PROPERTIES Air is colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-flammable. It is a mixture of several gases that, though ordinarily invisible, can be weighed, compressed to a liquid or frozen to a solid. Pure, dry air at sea level contains several gases, in the following proportions by volume %: nitrogen (N2), 78.09; oxygen (O2), 20.94; argon (Ar), 0.94 and carbon dioxide (CO2), 0.03. Traces of other gases, such as hydrogen and helium, are also present. The air in a well ventilated mine seldom shows any depletion of the oxygen content. HOW FORMED Air is the invisible envelope surrounding the earth, in which plants, animals, and human beings live and breathe. Gases in Air 20.94 % 0.03% 78.09 % 0.94% Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Argon EFFECTS ON HUMANS Mine air may be contaminated by the presence of other gases such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane, oxides of nitrogen and excess carbon dioxide. The presence of these gases may be due to any of the following:  Blasting or other explosions  Mine fires  Diffusion from ore or country rock, as with methane or radon  Decay of mine timber  Absorption of oxygen by water or oxidation of timber or ore  Use of diesel motors underground  Gas released from thermal water – carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide Except in the case of fire, adequate positive ventilating currents will prevent any dangerous accumulation of these gases. Gases may affect people either by their combustible, explosive or toxic properties, or, if inert, by the displacement of oxygen. The effects may be due to a variety of conditions including:    Altitude: Breathing becomes more laborious due to the decrease in oxygen content as the altitude increases. This is not dangerous unless conditions are extreme or the work arduous. Humidity: High temperatures with high humidity are very enervating and cause considerable discomfort. Temperature: High temperatures with low humidity are not dangerous except from the blistering effect of heat. Impure Air Non-toxic gaseous impurities are not dangerous unless they have displaced oxygen to a level below 19.5%. Regardless of the oxygen level, some toxic gases have deadly effects, even in very low concentrations. Effects may be sudden or gradual, depending on the concentration of the impurity. 5-5 NOTE: The Physiological Effects charts included with each gas sheet are general levels associated with the effects, not specific ranges. The data contained comes from many different resource materials. Care has been taken to use the most consistent and recent data possible. NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Acetylene (C₂H₂) PROPERTIES: Acetylene is colourless, has a faint odour of ether, and is tasteless. Acetylene is a highly flammable hydrocarbon fuel that produces industry’s hottest flame (3,260 C/5,900 F) when combined with oxygen in the oxyacetylene process. Acetylene is very unstable and can become dangerously explosive if compressed above 100 kilopascals (kPa) (15 psi) in the free state. Acetylene cylinders are therefore packed with porous material that is saturated with acetone in which the acetylene is dissolved. Acetylene can thus be safely stored and transported at a pressure of 1,700 kPa (250 psi). Never use acetylene above 100 kPa (15 psi). Acetylene has an explosive range of 2.8%–81%. HOW FORMED Product of mixing water with calcium carbide EFFECTS ON HUMANS Can displace oxygen OTHER INFORMATION Acetylene forms an explosive compound with copper and alloys containing more than 67% copper. The hazard is carefully avoided in the manufacture of welding torches, tips, and regulators. If an acetylene cylinder has been laid on its side, place the cylinder upright and wait at least one hour before using, as per the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Some welders call acetylene “gas” and oxygen “air”. This dangerous habit could cause death or injury under certain circumstances. Call all gases by their proper names. 5-6 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Ammonia (NH₃) PROPERTIES Ammonia is colourless, has a very pungent odour characteristic of drying urine, and is tasteless. Ammonia (also known as anhydrous ammonia or ammoniac) is a flammable caustic gas with a strong and distinctive smell detectable at concentrations of 1 to 50 ppm. Ammonia has an explosive range of 16%–25%. HOW FORMED It is formed by the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. It is stored in commercial cylinders as a compressed liquefied gas. It is corrosive and also explosive when exposed to heat and oxidizing substances. It can also be formed by contact between ammonium nitrate and cement. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Ammonia’s corrosive qualities will irritate the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, or moist skin and may cause considerable distress. Even brief exposure to concentrations of 5,000 ppm or more may cause rapid death due to suffocation or oedema in the lungs. OTHER INFORMATION: Specific clean‑up procedures:  Move the leaking cylinder to an exhaust hood or safe outdoor area for venting. Mark the empty cylinder DEFECTIVE.  Use a water spray or fog to reduce the gas cloud from a serious leak or spill, but do not aim a water jet directly at the source of the leak.  If possible, turn the leaking cylinder so that gas rather than liquid escapes. Isolate the area until the gas has dispersed. Firefighting procedures for fires involving ammonia: Carbon dioxide and powder extinguishers are suitable for fighting fires in which ammonia is involved. Stop the flow of gas or liquid and move ammonia cylinders from the fire area if it is safe to do so. Use a water spray to keep containers cool but do not direct water at the source of an ammonia leak or a venting safety device. Pressurized containers may explode in a fire, releasing irritating ammonia gas; be prepared by wearing self‑contained breathing apparatus. Ammonia is not readily ignited, but explosions of air-ammonia mixtures have occurred, particularly in confined spaces. Physiological Effects of Ammonia NH₃ in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms >1 Detectable odor 1–3 Mild irritation of mucus membranes 5–15 Moderate irritation of mucus membranes 30 Chest pain, shortness of breath, coughing 40–60 Fluid in the lungs (oedema), pneumonitis 400 Fatal in 30 minutes 1,000 Fatal in a few minutes 5-7 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) PROPERTIES Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that when breathed in large quantities may cause a distinctly acidic taste. The gas will not burn or support combustion. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and is often found in low places and abandoned mine workings. HOW FORMED Carbon dioxide, an inert gas, is a normal constituent of mine air. It is a product of the decomposition or combustion of organic compounds in the presence of oxygen as well as respiration of humans and animals. The proportion of carbon dioxide in mine air is increased by the process of breathing, by open flame, explosions and blasting, or by escape from thermal water. It is also used as an extinguishing agent and is also released from dry ice. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Clinical investigations indicate that carbon dioxide influences the respiratory rate. This rate increases rapidly with increasing amounts of carbon dioxide. Physiological Effects of Carbon Dioxide CO₂ in the Atmosphere (ppm) Increase in respiration 500 Slight 20,000 50% 30,000 100% 50,000 300% & Laborious 100,000 Survivable for only a few minutes 5-8 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Carbon Monoxide (CO) PROPERTIES Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that, when breathed in even low concentrations, will produce symptoms of poisoning. Carbon monoxide has an explosive range of 12.5%–74%. It is only slightly soluble in water and is not removed from the air to any extent by water sprays. It is slightly lighter than air. HOW FORMED Carbon monoxide gas is one of the greatest chemical hazards to humans. It is a product of combustion in normal blasting operations and the operation of internal combustion engines. It is also produced by occurrences such as mine fires or gas explosions. It can be formed wherever organic compounds are burned in an atmosphere with insufficient oxygen to carry the process of burning or oxidation to completion. EFFECTS ON HUMANS When carbon monoxide is absorbed it reduces the capacity of the haemoglobin for carrying oxygen to the tissues. The affinity of haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is about 300 times its affinity for oxygen. This means that when even a small amount of carbon monoxide is present in the air breathed, the haemoglobin will absorb the carbon monoxide in preference to the oxygen. It is this interference with the oxygen supply to the body that produces the symptoms of poisoning. Physiological Effects of Carbon Monoxide CO in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms 0–35 No symptoms 36–200 Flu-like symptoms: runny nose, headache 201–800 Dizziness, drowsiness, vomiting in less than an hour 801+ Unconsciousness, brain damage, and death 5-9 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Chlorine (Cl₂) PROPERTIES Chlorine is a heavy, greenish yellow, non-flammable gas that has an odour similar to chlorine bleach and is tasteless. Chlorine is easily liquefied and is supplied commercially as a liquid under pressure in cylinders and larger containers. HOW FORMED Electrolysis of common salt and other chemical reactions involving chlorine compounds. Some of its uses include treating potable water and milling processes. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Because of its fairly low solubility in water, chlorine is a severe irritant to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system (oedema). OTHER INFORMATION Chlorine itself is not flammable, but it may react to cause fire or explosions upon contact with turpentine, ether, ammonia, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, or steel pipes and vessels. Refer to site-specific procedures for handling and storing chlorine. Only specially trained workers should manage incidents involving chlorine. Special considerations for handling leaking chlorine containers:  If chlorine is escaping as a liquid, turn the container so that chlorine gas escapes. The amount of gas escaping from a leak is about one‑fifteenth the amount of liquid which will escape through a hole of the same size.  Do not apply water to a chlorine leak.  Pinhole leaks in cylinders and large containers may sometimes be temporarily stopped by tapered hardwood pegs or metal drift pins driven into the holes. First turn the container so that only gas is escaping. Use extreme care in driving the plug because the wall area surrounding the hole may be thin and crumble. After taking this emergency measure, empty the cylinder as quickly as possible. Physiological Effects of Chlorine Gas Cl₂ in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms 0–6 Eye irritation 7–15 Throat and lung irritation 16–30 Chest pain, vomiting, coughing, difficulty breathing, excess fluid in lungs (oedema) 430+ Fatal in 30 minutes 5-10 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Hydrogen (H₂) PROPERTIES Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is highly flammable. Hydrogen has an explosive range of 4%–74% with as little as 5% oxygen in the air. HOW FORMED Hydrogen can be produced when rock is heated to incandescence. It is a product of incomplete combustion or distilling coal. The most common source of hydrogen at mines is battery charging. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen may cause an oxygen-deficient atmosphere resulting in asphyxiation. 5-11 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) PROPERTIES Hydrogen cyanide is a colourless, tasteless gas with a distinctive odour of bitter almonds. Many people cannot detect presence by odour therefore the scent alone does not provide adequate warning of hazardous concentration. It condenses to a colourless liquid at temperatures below ‑26 C. Hydrogen cyanide has an explosive range of 5.6%–40%. HOW FORMED Hydrogen cyanide is formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid on cyanide compounds, such as potassium/sodium cyanide. It may occur in concentrator areas where cyanide is used as a reagent in the milling of gold ore, and other places where cyanide compounds are used. It may also be released from cyanide-bearing concentrator tailings. A solution of hydrogen cyanide in water is called hydrocyanic acid or prussic acid. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen cyanide is a fast‑acting and deadly poison that causes paralysis of the respiratory system and chemical asphyxiation. It interferes with the normal use of oxygen by nearly every organ of the body. It is particularly dangerous as it can be absorbed through the skin as well as by inhalation. HCN in the Atmosphere (PPM) 0–20 20–50 >50 >110 Physiological Effects of Hydrogen Cyanide Symptoms of Exposure May detect odour. Minor symptoms. Depending on amount and exposure time, may have initially experience restlessness and increased respiratory rate. Other early symptoms may include weakness, giddiness difficulty breathing, heart palpitations, headache. Onset of signs and symptoms is usually rapid after inhalation and may continue for several hours after exposure Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, respiratory failure, unconsciousness. Can be quickly fatal 5-12 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Hydrogen Sulphide (H₂S) PROPERTIES Hydrogen sulphide is colourless, tasteless, highly toxic, and highly soluble in water. In low concentrations its distinctive rotten‑egg smell is noticeable, but in high concentrations the sense of smell is quickly paralyzed by the action of the gas on the respiratory system and cannot be relied upon as a warning. Hydrogen sulphide has an explosive range of 4.3%–45%. HOW FORMED Dust explosions occurring in blasting operations in sulphide ore bodies can create hydrogen sulphide. It is also formed from burning sulphide ores or in the reaction of hydrochloric acid on sulphide concentrations. It may also be released from coal or country rock pockets, or from vegetable matter decomposing in water. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic and has neurotoxic effects. It immediately paralyzes the sense of smell and progresses to respiratory paralysis then death. It is an irritant that may cause pulmonary oedema. Physiological Effects of Hydrogen Sulphide H₂S in the Atmosphere (PPM) Effects of Exposure 100 Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) 5-13 NAME OF GAS and SYMBOL MAPP – Mixture of Methylacetylene, Propadiene, Propylene, Propane PROPERTIES MAPP is colourless, tasteless, slightly soluble in water and may smell slightly fishy. MAPP has all the best features of acetylene, natural gas and propane, and is extremely safe to use. It is a very stable gas. MAPP has an explosive range of 1.8%–11.7%. HOW FORMED Man-made combination of gases stored as a liquid under pressure. EFFECTS ON HUMANS MAPP may cause an oxygen deficient atmosphere and in high concentrations may have an anaesthetizing effect. MAPP is a slight irritant to the skin and, due to its high evaporation rate, may cause tissue freezing or frostbite on skin contact with the liquid. 5-14 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Methane (CH₄) PROPERTIES Methane is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. An odour caused by the presence of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide often accompanies it. Methane is lighter than air and has an explosive range of 5%–15%. Guidelines for methane in work environments:  ≥1% methane (20% of the LEL): No blasting or shot firing.  ≥1.25% methane (25% of the LEL): Isolate electrical circuits.  ≥2.5% methane (50% of the LEL): All workers are withdrawn from any work. HOW FORMED It is formed by the decomposition of organic matter in the presence of water and the absence of oxygen. It may be seen as bubbles in pools of water. It is a component of natural gas. Methane gas may be trapped in hardrock and released through diamond drilling operations. Methane is also produced by decaying timber. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Methane may cause an oxygen-deficient atmosphere resulting in asphyxiation. 5-15 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Nitrogen (N₂) PROPERTIES Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and inert gas. HOW FORMED Nitrogen is a naturally occurring constituent of the atmosphere. It is used in industry in either liquid or compressed gas form. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Nitrogen itself has no physiological effect on humans. However, increased nitrogen levels may cause an oxygen-deficient atmosphere resulting in asphyxiation. 5-16 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) PROPERTIES No colour in small concentrations, reddish brown in high concentrations. May smell like blasting fumes. Acidic taste if inhaled in high concentrations. It is one of many oxides of nitrogen. HOW FORMED Nitrogen dioxide is formed when nitric oxide (NO) is exposed to air, such as in electric arcing, oxy-gas welding, internal combustion engines, and burning or detonating explosives. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Nitrogen dioxide corrodes the respiratory passages and inhaling relatively small quantities may cause death. Symptoms from low doses of nitrogen dioxide may have a delayed onset. Its effects on the respiratory passages include oedema and swelling. This irritation may be followed by bronchitis or pneumonia, with potentially fatal results. Physiological Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide NO₂ in the Atmosphere (PPM) 60 100 100–150 200–700 Effects of Exposure Minimum causing immediate throat irritation Minimum causing coughing Dangerous for even short exposure Quickly fatal after short exposure 5-17 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Oxygen (O₂) PROPERTIES Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is required to support life and combustion. HOW FORMED Found in the atmosphere as a product of photosynthesis. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Any reduction from normal oxygen levels affects human physiology. Increased levels of oxygen reduce fatigue, but may have other effects over long periods of time that could occur with the use of an oxygen breathing apparatus. Atmospheres in the workplace should contain at least 19.5% oxygen. Physiological Effects of Oxygen Deficiency % O₂ in the Atmosphere Effects of Exposure (PPM) >23 (230,000) Will accelerate combustion 21 (210,000) Normal breathing 17 (170,000) Breathing faster and deeper 15 (150,000) Dizziness, buzzing noise, rapid pulse, headache, blurred vision. 9 (90,000) May faint or become unconscious. 6 (60,000) Movement convulsive, breathing stops. Shortly afterwards, the heart stops. 5-18 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Propane (C₃H₈) PROPERTIES Propane is colourless, odourless but commercially scented, tasteless, and flammable. Propane is a liquefied petroleum gas. Propane vapour is heavier than air. Any escaping gas will seek out low places, such as excavations, which may result in the accumulation and creation of flammable mixtures. Propane has an explosive range of 2.4%–9.5%. HOW FORMED Propane is extracted from natural and refinery gases. It is compressed into a liquid state and will remain as a liquid when stored under pressure. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Propane may cause an oxygen-deficient atmosphere resulting in asphyxiation. OTHER INFORMATION When converting to vapour, liquid propane will expand to about 270 times its liquid volume. Therefore, escaping liquid gas is more dangerous than vapour escaping from a leak of the same size. 5-19 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) PROPERTIES Sulphur dioxide is colourless, has an acidic taste and has a strong sulphurous smell with a low odour threshold. Sulphur dioxide is soluble in water. It is a heavy gas and will accumulate in low places. HOW FORMED Sulphur dioxide is a gas produced by heating, burning, or blasting sulphide ores. It is also produced in explosions of sulphide ore dust. Some diesel fuels also produce low amounts of sulphur dioxide when burned. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Sulphur dioxide may cause noxious effects before it becomes toxic. Irritation of the respiratory tract and lungs will cause oedema. Physiological Effects of Sulphur Dioxide Exposure Concentrations of SO₂ in the Atmosphere (PPM) 0 – 0.25 > 0.25 >100 ppm Effects of Exposure Mild to severe irritation to eyes, nose and throat Sulphur dioxide can cause a life-threatening condition from accumulation of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary oedema). Exposure to high concentrations can cause coughing, nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, tightness in chest, stomach pain and corrosive damage to the airways and lungs (symptoms may be delayed). May cause long term respiratory effects. Skin contact may cause burns, but signs and symptoms may vary (e.g., stinging pain, redness of the skin and blisters). Contact with eyes can cause mild irritation to severe burns. Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) 5-20 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS DURING AND AFTER FIRES During and following fires, the two greatest hazards to life are carbon monoxide poisoning and oxygen deficiency. The conditions that cause contamination of mine atmospheres are as follows, listed in order of the seriousness of the hazard:  Carbon monoxide: This gas is always present at the time of a fire and gives little or no warning of its presence.  Oxygen deficiency: This condition occurs when oxygen is consumed by combustion or chemical reaction and is replaced by toxic or inert gases. Precautions must always be taken against it.  Explosive gases and smoke: Irritating qualities and obstructs vision  Methane: This gas is not produced by mine fires or explosions but may cause them. Its presence in a mine during rescue or recovery operations creates a major hazard.  Sulphur Dioxide: This gas is present when a fire occurs in a sulphide ore body. Because of its irritating qualities, it may give advance warning in low concentrations.  Other gases: Hydrogen sulphide, nitrous oxides, hydrogen cyanide, etc., are not likely to be encountered but the possibility of their occurrence should be kept in mind. Hydrogen sulphide sometimes indicates the presence of methane. Burning Conveyor Belts and Rubber Tires Polyvinylchloride (PVC)-covered belting is practically non-flammable, but when heated, PVC, synthetic rubber, and neoprene (found in rubber tires) give off chlorine gas. Other gases produced by burning rubber are listed below. GASES PRODUCED BY BURNING RUBBER, NEOPRENE AND PVC Carbon Monoxide Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride Phosgene Sulphur Dioxide Hydrogen Sulphide Nitrogen Dioxide Ammonia Hydrogen Cyanide Arsine Phosphine Radiation Sources One source of radiation is nuclear gauges used for measuring. When responding to an incident involving this source, contact the site Radiation Safety Officer (RSO). Another source of radiation is radon, a naturally occurring element released into the mine’s atmosphere. As it is released, it continues to decay and forms airborne radioactive atoms. If radon levels in an area are very high, breathing protection may be required to reduce radiation exposure. Refer to site-specific safety procedures for all radiation emissions. 5-21 MINE RESCUE GAS CHART – For General Reference Only (non-regulatory) Lighter Than Air Substance Chem. Symbol Relative Density Air = 1 Explosive Range % T.L.V. ACGIH I.D.L.H. NIOSH Properties COT = Colourless, Odourless, Tasteless How Formed (See individual gas sheet for further information) Hydrogen H2 0.07 4–74 Asphyxiant COT Methane CH4 0.55 5–15 YES Not Listed Not Listed Ammonia NH3 0.60 16–25 YES YES Acetylene C2H2 0.91 2.8–81 Asphyxiant Not Listed Colourless, Strong odour Colourless, Distinct odour Incomplete comb. electrolysis of water, battery charging Decomposition of organic matter, carbonaceous rock, decaying timber, component of natural gas Reaction of nitrogen & hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst Water on calcium carbide Hydrogen Cyanide HCN 0.94 5.6–40 YES YES Colourless, Bitter Almond odour Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen CO 0.97 12.5–74 YES YES COT N2 0.97 N/A Asphyxiant Not Listed COT 1.00 N/A AIR Heavier Than Air COT Acid on sodium or potassium cyanide, produced during heat treating of drill steel, may be released from tailings where cyanide was used for mineral recovery Fires, gas explosions, blasting, incomplete combustion, diesel and gas engine exhaust Constituent of air, Commercial liquid or gas Nitrogen 78.09 %, Oxygen 20.94%, Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, Argon & Other Gasses 0.94% Oxygen O2 1.10 N/A N/A Hydrogen Sulphide H2S 1.19 4.3–45 YES Not Listed YES COT Carbon Dioxide CO2 1.53 N/A YES YES COT, Taste in high concentration Propane C3H8 1.56 2.4–9.5 YES Not Listed MAPP N/A 1.58 1.8–11.7 N/A Sulphur Dioxide Chlorine SO2 2.20 N/A YES Not Listed YES Cl2 2.49 N/A YES YES COT Commercially Scented Distinct fishy Odour Colourless, Sulphur smell, Acid taste Green yellow, Bleach smell Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 2.62 N/A YES YES Colourless, Rotten Egg Odour Colourless to redden brown, Acid taste in high concentration Constituent of air, From photosynthesis Decomposition of some sulphur compounds, blasting sulphide ores, decomposition of vegetable matter in water, hydrochloric acid on sulphide Constituent of air, breathing of humans & animals, decomposition or combustion of organic compounds with presence of oxygen Petroleum distillate Commercially manufactured Heating, burning or blasting sulphide ores, burning of some diesel fuels Principally from electrolysis of salt One of the many oxides of nitrogen, associated with burning & blasting, arching, welding, diesel exhaust Fig 5.1 General gas information for most commonly encountered gases 5-22 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 6 Rescue Tools 6-1 OBJECTIVES Dozens of different tools are commonly used in mine rescue operations. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  Concepts and definitions  General safety considerations  Tool classes  The tools most commonly used in mine rescue CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS The type of incident will dictate which tools are used to endeavor to rescue and ensure the safety of trapped and injured worker while minimizing risk to the rescuer and casualty. Tool selection should also account for maintaining and protecting mine property (e.g., to vehicles, infrastructure, equipment) from further damage as well as facilitating the rehabilitation of affected work areas while preserving the incident scene for investigation. This chapter is not an exhaustive inventory of every tool that could be encountered on a mine site. Trainees must be familiar with which tools are available at their mine site. Rescue tools can be organized into two general categories: hand tools and power tools. Hand tools are tools that require manual force. They extend the range or force of body actions. Power tools are operated by external or internal power sources. They are typically pneumatic (airpowered), hydraulic (fluid-powered), or electric (internal (battery) or external (plug-in) power source). Tools within these two categories can be grouped into sub-categories according to their function:  Rotating  Pushing, Pulling, and Lifting  Prying and Spreading  Striking  Cutting  Fire Appliances  Hazardous Materials/Spill  Energy Sources  Miscellaneous GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS      Safety is the primary consideration for the use of any tool. It avoids accidental injury to rescuers, casualties, and bystanders. Always wear the appropriate PPE when operating any tool. Training and practice in the proper use and functions of rescue tools is required prior to use. Special consideration must be paid to the unique demands of power tools, e.g., combustion, sparking, fumes, noise. Adequate lighting is essential to properly operate tools. 6-2     Evaluate the consequences of operation before beginning. Examine the tool for damage before each use and keep all tools in good working order. Use the tool only for tasks for which it is designed. Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions when operating any tool. ROTATING TOOLS Used to assemble and disassemble Common rotating tools include (L-R, top to bottom) wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers PUSHING, PULLING, AND LIFTING TOOLS Use to extend reach or to exert extra force on an object Common tools include pike poles, closet hooks, chains, winches, come-alongs, lifting bags, hydraulic jacks, cribbing and shoring Rope Rescue Equipment (See Ch. 11) 6-3 PRYING AND SPREADING TOOLS Used for gaining access Common tools include pry bars, scaling bars, hydraulic spreaders, rams, claw bars/crow bars, rock splitters, halligans, K tools STRIKING TOOLS Used to apply impact force or to gain access Common tools include axes, hammers, sledgehammers, mallets, pick heads, centre punches, and chisels 6-4 CUTTING TOOLS Used to sever an object Common cutting tools include knives, chain saws, reciprocating saws, rotary saws, hacksaws, cutting torches, bolt cutters, hydraulic shears, scissors, diagonal cutters, air chisels ENERGY SOURCES Provide independent energy in the field Common tools include power generators, lighting plants, hydraulic power source, compressed air cylinder 6-5 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE AND SPILL TOOLS Used to protect responders and help with clean up Common hazardous atmosphere and spill tools include spill kits, rakes, brooms, shovels, gas detectors, overpack drums, ventilation, respiratory apparatuses, thermal imaging devices, hazardous atmosphere PPE and decontamination equipment FIRE APPLIANCES Used to assist in fire suppression Common fire appliances include fire extinguishers, fire hoses, nozzles and pumps 6-6 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS Other tools encountered in mine rescue include communication devices, ladders, life lines, confined space equipment (tripods, harnesses, ventilation equipment), tarpaulins, flares, first aid equipment, traffic and hazard control, tape, lock out devices 6-7 6-8 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 7 Gas Detection Instruments 7-1 OBJECTIVES Rescue teams can determine the gases and vapours present in an atmosphere using a few different methods and tools. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  What gases could be encountered during an emergency response  Selecting monitoring equipment and methods suitable for the incident  Practical skills for an effective gas detection program Introduction There are four categories of hazardous atmospheres:  Toxic  Oxygen deficiency/Asphyxiating gases  Explosive/ flammable gases or vapours  Smoke, aerosols, fumes (particulate contaminants) Intrinsic Safety is a design applied to electrical equipment and wiring for hazardous locations. The technique is based on limiting energy, both electrical and thermal, to a level below that required to ignite a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture. All personal protective equipment must be considered before any and all gas testing. Always check that any monitoring equipment or other electrical devices are intrinsically safe. SELECTING GAS DETECTION EQUIPMENT It is important to select gas detection equipment that fits the specific needs of the incident. Mine rescue gas detection involves the use of direct-reading instruments (DRI). These instruments provide information at the time of sampling, thus enabling rapid decision-making. All equipment must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations. When selecting gas detection equipment, the user should:  Check for conditions that could interfere with the equipment o Cross Sensitivity: Sensor’s reaction to an interfering gas. The response of a sensor to a gas that is not the target of the sensor. o Some gases, such as acetylene, can interfere with the instrument sensor and mask the presence of sulphur dioxide (SO2). o Other common interferences: Electromagnetic fields, humidity, atmospheric pressure/altitude, low temperatures, saturation and high concentrations.  Consider performance criteria/specifications of the instrument o Response Time: Ability to react to its specific gas in the time specified (Ex. 90% of reading in 30 seconds). o Noise/Drift: How much readings fluctuate when the quantity or concentration of a substance stays the same. o Limit of Detection (LOD): The lowest quantity or concentration of a substance that the instrument can register within a margin of confidence. o Accuracy: The degree to which the measurement of a quantity of a substance matches up with that quantity’s actual value. 7-2 o o o Precision: The degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the same results. Dynamic Range: The ratio between the largest and smallest possible signals. The smallest is the LOD and the largest is sensor saturation. Note: Follow all manufacturer’s specifications for application and use. GAS DETECTOR TYPES Colorimetric (Tube-style) indicators measure more than 200 organic and inorganic gases and vapours in the air. The sealed glass tubes are filled with a granular material coated with a chemical that changes colour when it reacts to a particular gas or vapour.  Before Use: Refer to manufacturer’s instructions for the particular tube type. o Perform a pump leak test. o Ensure the direction arrow is oriented toward the pump.  Operation: A portable pump draws a known volume of air through a detector tube designed to measure the concentration. The colour Drager (L) and Gastec (R) colorimetric tubes change is then read on a scale printed on the tube.  Considerations: Measurement accuracy, limits of detection, interferences, temperature/humidity, shelf life, time period for which the colour stain is stable after sampling. Readings from a short-term indicator tube should be compared to the appropriate short-term exposure limits, such as TLV-STEL and TLV-C.    Tube Storage and Shelf Life: o Tubes have a shelf life. These expiration dates are printed on the box. o Store properly by avoiding excessively low or high temperatures and direct sunlight. Advantages: o Operation with one hand. o Low weight and simple operation. o Always ready for use (no batteries). o Tubes for more than 200 different gases and vapours. o Printed measuring scale on the tubes provide immediate reading of the result. o Low maintenance. Limitations: o Tubes and pumps are manufacturer-specific. o No alarm system, t

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