Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual PDF

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Ministry of Energy and Mines Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines Victoria British Columbia Canada December 31, 1998 Revised 2014-15 (minor correction update – December 2016) This manuscript is for educational purposes only. Nothing herein is to be regarded as in...

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Ministry of Energy and Mines Office of the Chief Inspector of Mines Victoria British Columbia Canada December 31, 1998 Revised 2014-15 (minor correction update – December 2016) This manuscript is for educational purposes only. Nothing herein is to be regarded as indicating approval or disapproval of any specific product or practice. Foreword Every mine has to maintain a mine rescue team to help ensure the safety of workers and property on mine sites throughout B.C., Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This manual has been crafted to demonstrate the basic equipment, procedures, practices, and principles that mine rescue trainees need to know before they respond to incidents at surface and underground mining operations. Mine Rescue teams have bravely responded to incidents and disasters throughout northern and western Canada for more than a century. It is through their training and practice that they have been able to come back safe and sound. Likewise, mine officials must also be familiar with their roles and responsibilities in the event of an emergency. Proper instruction must be complemented by individual and collective efforts to master the skills, equipment, and knowledge needed to execute a mine emergency response. This manual and training course represent the first steps you will take toward being able to answer that call. There are all sorts of incidents and emergencies that Mine Rescue teams can encounter, including electrical fires, gas leaks, avalanches, and motor vehicle accidents. Mine Rescue can be dangerous work, especially if it is not performed properly. Rescuers are responsible first for their safety and the safety of their team, but some responses will also require that they tend to casualties in need of assistance. In consulting the most up-to-date research as well as experts in government and industry, the committee who created this manual have endeavoured to make certain that the information found in these pages is as reliable, applicable, and above all, safe as possible. Your Mine Rescue training will not end when you finish this manual and course. Being a part of a Mine Rescue team means committing to a practice regime with your fellow Mine Rescuers to establish the cohesion, communication, and trust needed to function in the stressful environment of an emergency response. At times you may be called upon to assist in responses at other mining operations or to emergencies off-site. Wherever your Mine Rescue training takes you, wear the “MINE RESCUE” sticker on your hat with the pride and responsibility that it deserves. Al Hoffman Chief Inspector of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Mines British Columbia Bruce Milligan Director, Occupational Health and Safety Yukon Workers' Compensation Yukon Peter Bengts Chief Inspector of Mines, Worker’s Safety & Compensation Commission Northwest Territories and Nunavut Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1-1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1-2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING .................................................................. 1-2 REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING .................................................................................. 1-2 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................. 1-3 MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................... 1-3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 1-3 Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization .................................................................................................... 2-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 2-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS ............................................................................................................ 2-2 THE MINE RESCUE TEAM .................................................................................................................. 2-2 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS ............................................................................................ 2-5 DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES ......................................................................................................... 2-5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................ 2-7 FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE...................................................................................................................... 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS................................................................................... 2-8 PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS ..................................................................... 2-8 Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions .................................................................................................... 3-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 3-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................... 3-2 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR ............................................................................................................... 3-4 ICE TRAVEL ....................................................................................................................................... 3-4 THERMAL STRESS ............................................................................................................................. 3-6 Chapter 4 Electrical Hazards ................................................................................................................. 4-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 4-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................... 4-2 INJURIES CAUSED BY SHOCKS AND ELECTROCUTIONS ....................................................................... 4-5 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS .................................................. 4-8 GUIDELINES FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES .................................................................................... 4-9 Chapter 5 Gases and Hazardous Atmospheres ...................................................................................... 5-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 5-2 i CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................... 5-2 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS DURING AND AFTER FIRES ....................................................................... 5-21 Chapter 6 Rescue Tools ........................................................................................................................ 6-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 6-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................... 6-2 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................. 6-2 ROTATING TOOLS ............................................................................................................................. 6-3 PUSHING, PULLING, AND LIFTING TOOLS .......................................................................................... 6-3 PRYING AND SPREADING TOOLS ....................................................................................................... 6-4 STRIKING TOOLS ............................................................................................................................... 6-4 CUTTING TOOLS ............................................................................................................................... 6-5 ENERGY SOURCES ............................................................................................................................. 6-5 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE AND SPILL TOOLS................................................................................... 6-6 FIRE APPLIANCES .............................................................................................................................. 6-6 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS ................................................................................................................... 6-7 Chapter 7 Gas Detection Instruments ................................................................................................... 7-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 7-2 SELECTING GAS DETECTION EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................... 7-2 GAS DETECTOR TYPES ....................................................................................................................... 7-3 PRACTICAL SKILLS FOR GAS DETECTION ............................................................................................ 7-5 Chapter 8 Respiratory Protective Equipment ........................................................................................ 8-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 8-2 APPARATUS CONCEPTS..................................................................................................................... 8-3 SELF-RESCUERS ................................................................................................................................. 8-4 SELF-CONTAINED SELF-RESCUERS (SCSR) .......................................................................................... 8-6 SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS ....................................................................................... 8-8 CYLINDER TESTING AND CHARGING .................................................................................................. 8-9 Chapter 9 Oxygen Therapy ................................................................................................................... 9-1 OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................................... 9-2 SAFE STORAGE, TRANPSORT, AND USE ............................................................................................. 9-2 WHEN TO USE OXYGEN THERAPY ..................................................................................................... 9-3 BENEFITS OF OXYGEN THERAPY ........................................................................................................ 9-3 ii OXYGEN THERAPY EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................ 9-4 INSPECTING CYLINDERS AND ASSEMBLING COMPONENTS ............................................................... 9-7 ADMINISTERING OXYGEN ................................................................................................................. 9-7 SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE................................................................................................................. 9-8 OXYGEN CYLINDER DURATION .......................................................................................................... 9-8 Chapter 10 Fire................................................................................................................................... 10-1 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... 10-2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................. 10-2 FIRE BEHAVIOUR ............................................................................................................................ 10-3 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES ............................................................................................................... 10-9 PHASES OF FIRE ............................................................................................................................ 10-10 HAZARDS OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT................................................................................................. 10-11 VENTILATION ................................................................................................................................ 10-17 EQUIPMENT FIRES ........................................................................................................................ 10-18 BLEVE (BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOUR EXPLOSION) ........................................................... 10-18 Chapter 11 Rope Rescue ..................................................................................................................... 11-2 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... 11-3 PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................. 11-4 HARDWARE .................................................................................................................................... 11-8 KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES ....................................................................................................... 11-12 HARNESSES................................................................................................................................... 11-16 ANCHORS ..................................................................................................................................... 11-36 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES ......................................................................................................... 11-41 BELAYS ......................................................................................................................................... 11-47 RAPPELLING.................................................................................................................................. 11-51 Chapter 12 Underground Operations.................................................................................................. 12-1 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... 12-2 A GUIDE FOR PLANNING MINE EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ............................................................. 12-2 FIRE CONTROL AND VENTILATION .................................................................................................. 12-4 INSTRUMENTS USED IN VENTILATION WORK .................................................................................. 12-8 MINE DRAWINGS ............................................................................................................................ 12-9 UNDERGROUND MINE FIRES — CONTROL AND SUPPRESSION ...................................................... 12-11 iii Chapter 13 Operations Skills ............................................................................................................... 13-1 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... 13-2 USE OF PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS ......................................................................................... 13-2 SEARCH AND RESCUE...................................................................................................................... 13-2 STANDARD SEARCH PROCEDURE .................................................................................................... 13-3 CASUALTY MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................................. 13-5 EXTRICATION FROM VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................ 13-5 SUPPLEMENTARY RESCUE TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................... 13-6 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... iv v Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1 INTRODUCTION This manual is designed to provide basic training in the rescue procedures to be followed in the event of an incident requiring emergency response at a surface or underground mining operation. The mining laws of all jurisdictions in Western Canada require that trained, properly equipped mine rescue teams be maintained at all surface and underground mining operations. It is the management’s responsibility to appoint a qualified person as a trainer for mine rescue training and to ensure that all mine rescue team members practice as a team. The appointed rescue trainer is responsible for maintaining a log of dates, times, training material, and equipment used at practice sessions. All records must be signed off by employers and trainees. A properly planned training agenda should be constructed so as to achieve the maximum training results for the allotted training time, as stipulated by local legislation. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING The fundamental principles of mine rescue training are, in order of importance:  Ensuring the safety of self and rescue team  Endeavouring to rescue or ensuring the safety of trapped or injured workers  Protection of the mine property from further damage  Rehabilitation of the affected work area and salvage of equipment Through training, mine rescue teams will become familiar with:  Mine rescue equipment  Mining equipment that may be useful in an emergency (cranes, loaders, scoop trams, etc.)  Hazards involved in mine rescue work (toxic and flammable gases, electricity, rock‑falls, etc.)  The most common dangerous occurrences, such as those involving fire, machinery, or electricity REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING Mine rescue work is physically and mentally demanding, and at times dangerous. Members of mine rescue teams must not only have an intimate knowledge of their equipment but must also be physically sound and fit to perform strenuous work while wearing a breathing apparatus. In addition, they must maintain good judgement and temperament. They should be selected carefully and must receive thorough training. Frequent additional training and instruction should be given in an irrespirable atmosphere to ensure that both crew and equipment are in condition to respond to an emergency. Training exercises involving a recovery problem should be conducted occasionally. Many hours of training and practice are needed to develop a competent mine rescue team that can work effectively with other teams to accomplish rescue objectives in the event of a mine emergency. It is also most important that mine officials receive periodic instruction and training in the duties they must perform, both individually and collectively, should an incident arise requiring a mine rescue response. They must know where tools, equipment and materials can be obtained, both on the mine site and from outside sources. 1-2 All supervisory staff should be instructed that, in the absence of higher authority, they must take charge, and act on matters requiring immediate attention. They must notify all persons required to assist at a disaster, particularly the regulator responsible for the district in which the mine is located, the mine rescue team, and any other help that may be available. MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS Candidates for mine rescue training must meet the following minimum requirements:  Minimum age of 18 years  Speak, read, and write English*  Be in good physical and mental condition*  Be familiar with mining conditions, practices, hazards and equipment  Have no perforated eardrums (tympanic membrane)*  Hold a valid Standard First Aid Certificate with spinal immobilization training or its equivalent  Clean-shaven, with no facial hair to interfere with the seal on the breathing apparatus.  Hold any additional certifications as required by your jurisdiction Whether a candidate is trained in underground mine rescue, surface mine rescue, or first aid, the applicant must be mentally and physically capable and prepared to render assistance whenever called upon to do so. * = Subject to the discretion of the mine manager MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION The Basic Underground or Surface Mine Rescue Certificate will be issued to candidates who successfully complete the training course. The candidate must attain a grade of 70% upon examination to pass. Continuous participation in mine rescue service while maintaining the above minimum requirements will ensure that the certification does not expire. A rescuer may apply for an advanced certificate after five years of service in addition to fulfilling further competencies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Mine Rescue Manual has evolved from integrating revised editions of the General Underground Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1977‑2) and the Surface Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1981‑4). The manual was compiled by Mike Barber and Haley Kuppers, in cooperation with a steering committee drawn from the coal- and metal‑mining industries in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. The compilers gratefully acknowledge the contribution made by members of the steering committee in 2013–14, specifically: Jerrold Jewsbury Gerry Wong Nathan Pitre Lex Lovatt Ron Ratz British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines Teck Highland Valley Copper Diavik Diamond Mines (2012) Inc. Workers Safety and Compensation Commission of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Yukon Workers Compensation Health and Safety Board 1-3 Considerable assistance in creating and reviewing content for the manual was provided by:  East Kootenay Mining Industry Safety Association (B.C.)  North/Central/South Mine Rescue (B.C.)  Northern Mine Safety Forum  Yukon Mine Producers Group The manual also draws on a number of earlier publications, including:  The Handbook of Training in Mine Rescue and Recovery Operations, Ontario Ministry of Labour  Mine Rescue Crisis Response Manual, Yukon Territorial Government  Occupational First Aid Manual, British Columbia Workers’ Compensation Board  Electrical Safety for Policemen and Firemen, B.C. Hydro  Rigging for Rescue, Dynamic Rescue Systems  Operation Recharge Inspection and Maintenance Manual – Cartridge Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers, ANSUL  Manitoba Mine Rescue Training and Reference Manual, Manitoba Ministry of Mineral Resources  Alberta Mine Rescue Manual, Alberta Mine Safety Association  Saskatchewan Mine Emergency Response Program, Saskatchewan Labour Occupational Health and Safety  The Canadian Electrical Code, Canadian Standards Association  Various publications of American Congress of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), National Institute for Occupational Safety, and Health (NIOSH), Environment Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), and Health Canada A number of photos in this manual are used courtesy of the manufacturers and rights holders, including:  Draeger Canada  vRigger  AnimatedKnots.Com  Ferno Canada  Canadian Safety  Carleton Rescue Equipment  CMC Rescue  Gastec  Scott Safety  Biomarine Inc.  MSA Canada  Industrial Scientific  O-Two  Honeywell Analytics These sources are gratefully acknowledged. This manual is intended to cover basic mine rescue principles, techniques, and equipment. Familiarize yourself with site-specific procedures, manufacturer’s instructions, and other training programs available to supplement this course. 1-4 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization 2-1 OBJECTIVES Before learning the skills necessary to complete mine rescue operations, trainees must understand how teams and rescue operations are organized. Upon completing this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  Mine Rescue Team Structure  Communications by Team Members  Decision-making Processes  Personal Protective Equipment requirements  Fresh Air Bases/Zones  First Response to Hazardous Materials  Physical/Emotional Stress in Critical Incidents CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS A Mine Emergency Response Plan (MERP) is the company’s guide to all procedures and plans of action in the case of an emergency on-site. This plan describes roles and responsibilities for management, rescue teams, and support personnel. An Incident Management System, such as Incident Command System (ICS), allows for command, control, and co-ordination during emergency response. The incident management system is a component of a MERP. THE MINE RESCUE TEAM Mine rescue teams are called upon to respond to many different kinds of emergencies. Time will be an important factor, and the following practices will help teams work efficiently in an emergency: 1. The first and foremost is team structure. This leads to successful efforts in disciplines such as extrication techniques, first aid methods and firefighting procedures that require a team effort. 2. The team should plan and practice basic procedures prior to an emergency situation. The Captain The Captain is the No. 1 member on the team. Above all, the Captain must be a competent leader who has the confidence and respect of team members. The Captain must be in good physical and mental condition and experienced in every aspect of emergency response. The Captain’s responsibilities include:  Ensuring team is response-ready  Ensuring breathing apparatus and auxiliary equipment are response-ready  Ensuring safe operation of all rescue equipment  Communicating within the emergency response structure  Knowledge of all facilities at the mine and relevant fire, explosive, electrical, mechanical, and chemical hazards  Knowledge of ventilation principles  Knowledge of mine gases  Directing and assisting the work of team members at the scene  Determining and inspecting all aspects of a rescue operation  Establishing and maintaining incident scene security and control 2-2 The Vice-Captain The Vice Captain of a surface mine rescue team is the No. 2 member. In underground teams, the ViceCaptain is the No. 5 member. In the event that the Captain is unable to perform the assigned responsibilities, the Vice-Captain must take control of the team and therefore must have the same qualifications as the Captain. Vice-Captains are also responsible for monitoring members of the team and warning the Captain if any member shows signs of distress or fatigue during a response. They must also make certain that team members rotate while carrying a stretcher over distances to prevent fatigue. Team Members A standard mine rescue team has six members including the Captain. The sixth member of an underground team is the Co-ordinator and provides direction from the surface incident command centre to the underground team Captain. All team members are responsible for recognizing hazards and relaying that information to other team members. The team must be rested regularly and be constantly observed for signs of distress in any member. Work must be distributed as evenly as possible among all members. Team Captains will delegate duties among the other team members, such as:  Exploring affected area of the mine  Rope work and rigging  Firefighting  First Aid  Extrication Teams may add members during a response based on their requirements or the members’ specific skill set. Any additional team members must have a number assigned to them in sequence beyond the six original members. Mutual Aid Large incidents may require assistance from other mines or emergency agencies. This collaboration is known as mutual aid and is a component of a MERP. When collaborating with mine rescue teams, it is imperative to follow the same numbering format for team designations. This will ensure that communications between incident management and each responding team are aligned with the MERP and that all responsibilities are assigned in an orderly manner. If extra personnel are added to a team, each rescuer will be assigned team numbers continuing from the basic six (team member 7, 8, 9, etc.). Mine Rescue Unit The mine rescue unit consists of a minimum of three mine rescue teams summoned to a mine disaster. If the operation extends beyond six hours, additional teams must be called in. To reduce fatigue, the teams rotate to allow one team at work, one team on hand as backup, and the third team at rest. Typical rotations for a three-, six-, and nine-team units are as follows: Active Team (Max. 2 hrs.) A-team B-team C-team Back-up Team B-team C-team A-team Team at Rest C-team A-team B-team 2-3 Fig 2.1: This table shows a rotation of mine rescue teams in a six-team arrangement. The arrangement allows for each rotation to have six hours on duty (two hours active, two hours standby and two hours reserve) followed by six hours of rest. DATE: TIME TEAM # DESCRIPTION 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY 2 STAND BY ACTIVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 RESERVE ACTIVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 6 RESERVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 5 RESERVE STAND BY RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: Fig. 2.2: This table shows a rotation of Mine Rescue teams in a nine-team arrangement. With a nine-team rotation, the rest time will be extended to match the teams deployed to the mine emergency. DATE: TIME DESCRIPTION TEAM # 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 2 STAND BY ACTIVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 5 6 7 8 9 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: 2-4 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS All members of a mine rescue team must observe strict discipline and must obey all directions given to them by the Team Captain. Primary communication is done via electronic devices, such as phones or intrinsically safe radios where required. Surface team members should all carry whistles for secondary communication. On underground teams, the Captain and the Vice‑Captain will both carry a horn, bell, whistle, or use other site-specific methods or devices. A standard set of signals has been established. One Two Three (Distress) Four (Attention) Five (Retreat) Standard Code of Signals To advance if stopped; to stop if in motion. To rest. This signal will often be given by the Vice-Captain as he is observing the team members during travel and will be first to notice signs of distress. At this signal, all team members will look at the person giving the signal and receive further instructions At this signal, the team will immediately retreat in the direction from which they have come. The Vice-Captain (underground) may lead the team in retreat for short distances through areas already explored, but should not lead the team into unexplored areas. As soon as circumstances permit, the Captain should resume the responsibility of leading the team. DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES Mine rescue responsibilities can be very demanding. Mine rescue members may be the first trained personnel to arrive at the incident scene. They are required to:  Control the scene  Ensure the MERP is initiated  Ensure the safety of self and team, casualties, and bystanders  Assist with casualty extrication and first aid  Fight fires  Control chemical spills Response and Size Up Response begins when a rescue team is alerted to an incident. It involves safely travelling to and arriving at the incident scene, then staging and securing equipment and vehicles. Response elements include:  Preparation: Ensuring equipment, including PPE, is in its designated location; familiarity with facilities, response procedures, and pre-incident plans  Method of alert/notification: Alarms, two-way radio, telephone, pager  Establish communication within the rescue team and between team and command structure  Safe travel to incident: Seatbelts, route, site specific traffic rules, exiting the vehicle  Arrival at the scene: o Accountability: Under the command structure, account for the responding rescue team members first then for all personnel at the incident scene. o Freelancing: Acting independently of command instruction is unacceptable and must not be tolerated. 2-5 Identify the Problem Size up is a systematic process of gathering information and situational evaluation that continues throughout the operation. Size up is essential to accomplish a safe and efficient rescue operation. There are four parts to size up: 1. Information gathered from the initial call: o Nature and location of emergency o Number of people/injuries involved o Weather conditions o Time of day o Equipment involved and access to the scene 2. Details observed en route: o Power blackouts o Smoke in the direction of the emergency o Traffic (unusual flow or congestion) and bystanders 3. Details observed at the scene: o Signs of hazardous conditions observed while establishing perimeter o Confirm / compare observations to information given in the initial call o Gasoline or fuel, chemical release or spill o Location of casualties o Actions that may have been taken by people already at the scene 4. Information gathered during size up is either factual (known or confirmed) or probable (assumptions made based on situation). For example, building occupancy based on time of day would be classified as probable. Hazard assessment involves identifying and evaluating hazards that may be encountered during the rescue operation. These hazards include:  Fire  Hazardous atmospheres (e.g., chemical hazards, toxic gases, oxygen displacement)  Energy sources (e.g., electrical, gas, nuclear)  Physical (e.g., structure, traffic, topography)  Biological  Environmental  Evaluate all influencing factors (e.g., time, location, environment, weather) Formulate an objective based on known information and resources  Determine what resources are required to accomplish the task (e.g., offensive or defensive)  Risk-based decision-making based on the fundamental principles of mine rescue Select one or more alternatives from the available options  Choose priorities based on the task and the resources available. Take appropriate action  Conduct all activities in a manner that ensures the safety of team members, casualties, and bystanders. Analyze results  Continuous process throughout the response  Be prepared to choose an alternative action if results are unsatisfactory. 2-6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT The environment in which mine rescue teams perform their duties demands that they be provided with the appropriate personal protective equipment. The provision and use of appropriate protective equipment will not, by themselves, assure individual safety. All protective equipment components have limitations that must be recognized so that users will not overextend their range of protection. Extensive training in the care, use, and maintenance of protective equipment is essential to assure that it will provide optimum protection. All members should be aware of the type of equipment needed for different situations and know where to find it. All equipment used must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations.  Head protection  Eye and face protection  Hearing protection  Respiratory protection  Hand protection  Foot protection  Protective clothing  Specialized equipment and tools (e.g., chainsaw chaps, extrication tools) FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE A fresh‑air base/zone is an area in which good respirable air has been established and can be maintained indefinitely. It is the point of departure for the mine rescue team and no one should proceed beyond the fresh‑air base/zone without wearing respiratory protection. In choosing the base/zone, consideration should be given to providing the following:  A clean area with good lighting  A safe location as close to the incident as possible  An area for briefing and debriefing mine rescue teams  Adequate space to perform the necessary work  Necessary tools and supplies to carry out the work at hand For underground fresh-air bases, consideration should also be given to make sure that:  The travel way from the base to surface must always be assured of good air.  Underground-to-surface communication is uninterrupted. 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Rescue members should be competent in site-specific response procedures. In the event of any incident involving hazardous materials, rescuers can refer to:  The Emergency Response Guidebook for Incidents Involving Hazardous Materials  Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or Information Sheets provided by the manufacturer for all products on-site  CANUTEC (Canadian Transport Emergency Centre, a 24-hour national emergency response advisory service) and WISER (Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders)  On-site expertise PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS A critical incident is an event that is outside the range of usual human experience and is psychologically traumatic to the person. Critical incidents may produce a wide range of stress reactions, which can appear immediately at the scene, a few hours later or within a few days of the event. Stress reactions usually occur in four different categories:  Cognitive (thinking)  Physical (body)  Emotional (feelings)  Behavioural (actions) The more reactions experienced, the greater the impact on the individual. The longer the reactions last, the more potential there is for permanent harm. These stresses can cause a wide variety of reactions: Category Symptoms Cognitive Emotional Physical Behavioural Poor concentration Poor attention span Indecision Loss of emotional control Depression Guilt Muscle tremors Gastrointestinal distress Headaches Excessive silence Withdrawal from contact Change in eating habits Memory problems Difficulty with calculations Slowed problem solving Feeling lost or overwhelmed Anxiety/Fear Grief Chest pains Difficulty breathing Elevated blood pressure Atypical behaviour Sleep disturbance Change in work habits These conditions result from the effects of the body’s chemical emergency response system. Following the completion of a mine rescue emergency response, mine rescue teams must hold a debriefing. A Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) or other counselling procedures should be conducted with all personnel directly involved in a Critical Incident. The debriefing should be held immediately at the end of the emergency response and be facilitated by qualified professionals. 2-8 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions 3-1 OBJECTIVES Mine rescue teams should be aware of the special dangers associated with environmental conditions. This chapter will provide a basic understanding of:  Avalanche terms, concepts, and equipment  Ice travel  Thermal stress CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS Mines operating in avalanche-prone areas must develop an avalanche emergency response plan tailored to their mine. Mine rescue personnel may be required to perform emergency response activities that expose them to avalanche hazards. This chapter is intended to only provide basic avalanche awareness. A qualified avalanche safety officer must be identified, consulted, and lead the safe emergency response in an active avalanche situation. The avalanche safety officer must conduct an avalanche risk assessment and establish active avalanche safety measures prior to planning emergency operations. An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface that can occur at any time provided the right conditions are present. Avalanches have three main parts:  Starting zone (point of origin): Where the unstable snow first breaks away. An avalanche path may have several starting zones. Characteristics of starting zones include: incline, slope aspect, exposure to wind, elevation, exposure to sun, natural ground condition.  Track (zone of transition): Below the starting zone, where the avalanche accelerates and typically reaches maximum destructive potential. It will have the potential to overrun terrain features and previous avalanche tracks. Avalanche areas can contain one or more tracks. These tracks may be poorly or clearly defined.  Run-out zone: Where the avalanche decelerates and finally comes to rest. It can be identified as a zone where the bulk of the snow is deposited. Avalanches may occur anywhere given the following conditions:  Geography, such as the natural topography of the area, engineered land forms, and slope orientation.  Snow accumulates on a moderate to steep slope (30°–45°). Avalanches rarely start on slopes steeper than 45° as snow sloughs off continuously rather than accumulating.  Snow conditions, such as: o Snow pack (accumulation) o Mass o Layers of snow and bonding between facet Fig 3.1 Slope steepness and avalanches layers o Environmental effects: Variation in temperature, wind, humidity 3-2  An external event that triggers the slide. These can be: o Natural: New snow, transported snow (wind), temperature changes, sun, rain, thawing and animals. o Human: Explosives, working on a slope, working below a slope, mobile equipment, and recreational activities. o Trigger points: Snow conditions, shallow areas/variable depth snow packs, points of weakness (e.g., trees, rock outcrops) may all contribute to the development of avalanche conditions. Two types of avalanche are commonly recognized: Loose Snow Avalanches may consist of dry powder snow or wet snow. Dry snow avalanches are most common in winter after storms and rare in spring or summer. Wet snow avalanches consist of heavy, wet, sun-heated or rainrotted snow or wet new snow and are most common in spring and summer, particularly on south-facing slopes. These avalanches:  Start from a point  Are set in motion progressively  Require snow with poor cohesion, similar to that of dry sand  Are usually confined to surface layers and therefore relatively small Slab Avalanche Loose Snow Avalanche Slab Avalanches occur when a slab of fairly cohesive layers of snow, poorly bonded to the snow underneath, breaks off along a fracture line. These avalanches are by far the most dangerous. They are set in motion simultaneously, over a large area and may start in either shallow or deep snow layers. Safety in Avalanche Zones The successful rescue of a person buried in an avalanche very often depends upon actions taken by unburied survivors. Teams performing rescue operations in an avalanche area must be mentally prepared for the possibility that they too may be overtaken by an avalanche. If crossing an avalanche track cannot be avoided, take the following precautions:  Select the shortest possible route high on the slope or low in the run-out zone  Plan an escape route.  Wear mitts and hats. Tighten clothing and smaller packs. Loosen larger packs in case they need to be quickly removed.  Assign a spotter at the top and bottom of the track and agree on a warning signal.  Cross quickly. If the crossing is narrow, one person crosses at a time. Otherwise, maintain space between rescuers to minimize the risk of exposure to an avalanche track. 3-3 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR Probe, Avalanche transceiver (beacon), and Shovel: These three items work together and are the minimum required equipment for every avalanche rescuer. For proper use of avalanche rescue gear, refer to manufacturer’s guidelines. L-R: Probe, Shovel, Transceiver (bottom) ICE TRAVEL Some mining operations in remote northern locations are accessed by ice roads built on frozen lakes and rivers. Prior to travelling on ice The thickness of the ice must be tested frequently in various locations. The smallest thickness is what is used to determine the strength of the ice. Table 3.1 indicates the weight that will be supported by varying thicknesses of clear blue lake-ice, provided the load remains in motion.  Type of ice: o River or lake (movement of water beneath ice). Clear blue river-ice, with moving water beneath it, is not as strong as lake-ice. Loads should be reduced by at least 15% o Clear or natural ice (black or blue hue). This is considered the strongest form of ice. o Slush ice (white hue) is snow saturated with water. It is commonly found as new ice floating after a heavy snowfall. It is much weaker than clear blue lake-ice.  Cracks in ice may affect its ability to support a load. While traveling on ice  As a vehicle travels on ice it creates a resonance wave in the underlying water. The weight and speed of the vehicle, as well as the depth of the water, influence the size and speed of the wave. The resonance wave can affect the strength of the ice, potentially resulting in a blowout, or an ice failure.  Unless otherwise posted, the speed limit on ice roads is 25 km/h for a loaded vehicle and 35 km/h for an empty vehicle. 3-4 The following table shows the maximum allowable mass of a vehicle in motion for ice of various thicknesses. Gold’s Formula for determining the maximum allowable mass is: 𝑀 = 4 × ℎ2 where M is the mass of the vehicle (kg) and h is the thickness of the ice (cm) Ice Thickness (cm) 2.5 3.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 Ice Thickness – Clear Blue Lake Ice Capacity (kg) Ice Thickness (cm) Capacity (kg) 25 37.5 5,625 49 40 6,400 100 42.5 7,225 225 45 8,100 400 47.5 9,025 625 50 10,000 900 52.5 11,025 1,225 55 12,100 1,600 57.5 13,225 2,025 60 14,400 2,500 62.5 15,625 3,025 65 16,900 3,600 67.5 18,225 4,225 70 19,600 4,900 72.5 21,025 Ice Thickness (cm) 75 77.5 80 82.5 85 87.5 90 92.5 95 97.5 100 102.5 105 107.5 110 Capacity (kg) 22,500 24,025 25,600 27,225 28,900 30,625 32,400 34,225 36,100 38,025 40,000 42,025 44,100 46,225 48,400 Table 3.1 – Ice Strength 3-5 THERMAL STRESS Thermal stress refers to a range of physiological reactions to adverse temperature conditions. There are many factors that contribute to these stresses. Mine rescuers must be able to recognize and adequately respond to these conditions. Hypothermia is a condition of lowered internal body-core temperature (exposure sickness). Failure to recognize symptoms of hypothermia is the leading cause of death for people in the outdoors. Hypothermia is caused by overexposure to a cold environment and can develop very quickly if proper precautions are not taken. Hypothermia results from chilling by cold, wind, or water such that the body loses heat faster than it can produce it. Factors contributing to the development of hypothermia include:  Inadequate clothing  Alcohol or drugs in the body Hypothermia and Water Immersion  Wetness (perspiration, rain)     Exhaustion, dehydration, and lack of nutrition Wind and water Temperature Duration of exposure Symptoms of Hypothermia Visible symptoms indicate the onset of hypothermia. Its advance is marked by recognizable stages. Stage Core Temperature (C) Mild Hypothermia 37.2–36.1 36.1–35.0 Moderate Hypothermia 35.0–33.9 33.9–32.2 Severe Hypothermia 32.2–30.0 30.0–27.8 27.8–25.6 25.6–23.9 If water temperature (C) is... 0 1–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30 Exhaustion or Unconsciousness < 15 minutes 15–30 minutes 30–60 minutes 1–2 hours 2–7 hours 3–12 hours Indefinitely Expected survival time 15–45 minutes 30–90 minutes 1–3 hours 1–6 hours 2–40 hours 3 hours–indefinitely Indefinitely Signs & Symptoms Normal, shivering can begin Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with hands, shiver can be mild to severe, hands numb Shivering, intense, lack of muscle coordination becomes apparent, movements slow and labored, stumbling pace, mild confusion, may appear alert. Use sobriety test: if unable to walk a 30 foot straight line, the person is hypothermic. Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia starts to appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands, stumbles frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn. Shivering stops, exposed skin blue of puffy, muscle coordination very poor, inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behavior, but may be able to maintain posture and appearance of awareness Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse and respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation Unconscious, heart beat and respiration erratic, pulse may not be palpable Pulmonary oedema, cardiac and respiratory failure, death. Death may occur before this temperature is reached. 3-6 Bodily Heat Loss The head and neck are the most critical heat-loss areas. Other body areas have high rates of heat loss while a subject is holding still in cold water. Infrared pictures show that the sides of the chest (where there is little muscle or fat) are the major routes for heat loss from the warm chest cavity. The groin area also loses much heat due to the large blood vessels near the surface. If an effort is made to conserve body heat, these regions deserve special attention. Fig 3.2: This infrared image of a body shows high-heat areas (red) and low-heat areas (blue) Cold Water Survival Techniques Mine rescuers that work near water require personal floatation devices (PFD). The onset of hypothermia is much quicker for people immersed in cold water. These two techniques can extend predicted survival times: H.E.L.P. (Heat Escape Lessening Position) This technique for cold water survival protects the parts of the body that lose heat fastest. It increases predicted survival time by up to 50%. This position requires a floatation device that maintains upper-body buoyancy. Huddle Position Predicted survival time can be increased by up to 50% if survivors huddle together. In this position, the sides of the survivors’ chests are held close together to prevent heat loss. In cold water (<10 C), the average person can swim no more than one-tenth the distance they can in warm water. 3-7 Cold Stress Conditions Exposure to cold environments or water for a prolonged period can result in a number of adverse conditions. Particularly during winter months, precautions should be taken to avoid these conditions during mine rescue work. Condition Chilblains Cause  Prolonged and repeated exposure for several hours to air temperatures from above freezing to as high as 16 C  Ear lobes, noses, cheeks, fingers, or toes are exposed to the cold and the top layers of skin freeze Symptoms (may or may not be present)  Affected skin area there will have redness, swelling, tingling, and pain Frostbite  Exposure to extreme cold or by contact with extremely cold objects (especially those made of metal). It may also occur in normal temperatures from contact with cooled or compressed gases.  Frostbite occurs when tissue temperature falls below the freezing point, or when blood flow is obstructed.  Mild cases: Inflammation of the skin in patches accompanied by slight pain  Severe cases: Tissue damage without pain, or there could be burning or prickling sensations resulting in blisters  Blood vessels may be severely and permanently damaged, and blood circulation may stop in the affected tissue  Frostbitten skin is highly susceptible to infection, and gangrene (local death of soft tissues due to loss of blood supply) may develop Immersion Foot/Trench Foot  Occurs when feet have been wet, but not freezing cold, for prolonged periods of time  Can occur at temperatures up to 10 C  Trench foot is more likely to occur at lower temperatures  Immersion foot is more likely to occur at higher temperatures and longer exposure times.  Hands can be affected if a person wears wet gloves for a prolonged period under cold conditions  Tingling and numbness  Itching, pain, or swelling of the legs, feet, or hands  Blisters  Skin turns red then blue or purple  Gangrene may develop Frostnip  Affected skin turns white and may feel numb.  Top layer of skin feels hard but the deeper tissue still feels soft 3-8 Heat Stress Conditions As with cold stress conditions, the severity of heat stress conditions depends on duration and intensity of exposure and activity, as well as the patient’s fitness and health. Condition Heat Rash Heat Cramps Heat syncope (fainting) Heat Exhaustion Heat Stroke Cause  Hot, humid environment  Plugged sweat glands  Heavy sweating from strenuous physical activity drains a person’s body of fluid and salt.  Fluid loss  Inadequate water intake  Standing still resulting in decreased blood flow to brain  Fluid loss and inadequate salt and water intake causes the body’s cooling system to start to break down.  If a person’s body has used up all its water and salt reserves, it will stop sweating. This can cause body temperatures to rise.  Heat stroke may develop suddenly or may follow from heat exhaustion. Symptoms (may or may not be present)  Red bumpy rash with severe itching  Painful cramps occur in the most commonly worked muscles (arms, legs, abdominals)  Onset can be immediate or delayed.  Sudden fainting after at least two hours of work  Cool, moist skin  Weak pulse  Heavy sweating  Cool, moist skin  Elevated body temperature  Weak pulse  Normal or low blood pressure  Fatigue, weakness, nausea and vomiting  Thirst  Panting or rapid breathing  Blurred vision  Dizziness  Oedema  Light headedness  High body temperature (higher than 41 C)  Any one of the following may indicate heat stroke: o Hot, dry, flushed skin o Person is weak, confused, upset or acting strangely; o has hot, dry, red skin; o a fast pulse; o headache or dizziness.  In later stages a person may pass out and have convulsions  Fast breathing  Absence of sweating  Shock  Cardiac arrest 3-9 Wind Chill is the perceived decrease in air temperature felt by the body on exposed skin due to wind. It must be considered an additional hazard when working in cold environments. The wind chill table should be posted wherever the wind and temperature recorder is mounted. 3-10 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 4 Electrical Hazards 4-1 OBJECTIVES This chapter is intended to educate and protect rescuers who are called upon to respond to emergencies involving electrical systems. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  Concepts and definitions  Injuries caused by electrocution and factors affecting severity  Special considerations for emergencies involving electrical equipment  Guidelines for responding to emergencies involving electrical equipment Introduction The widespread use of electric power, carried by a vast network of energized wires, has resulted in many injuries and deaths due to exposure to electricity. Many factors influence the severity of electrical injuries. Although high voltages and amperages are dangerous, contact with low voltages can also be fatal. Moisture on the skin decreases the body’s resistance and increases the severity of the injury, whereas partial insulation by dry clothing lessens the effect. Electrocution at heights may result in a fall that can further injure the casualty. Electrical Installations Electricity is generated by power plants. This voltage is stepped up for efficient transmission over long distances to substations near the load centres. Transmission lines operate between 69,000 volts and 500,000 volts. At the substations, voltage is reduced and power is sent through distribution lines to industrial, commercial, and residential customers. These lines operate between 5,000 V and 25,000 V. Some mines, especially those in more remote locations, have their own on-site power-generating capabilities. These facilities present unique circumstances during emergencies. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points in an electrical field. It is the force that causes the flow of electricity, and it is measured in volts (V). Because mines require high voltages, kilovolts (kV, 1 kV = 1,000 V) are often used to express the difference in electrical potential. Current is a flow of electrical charge. It can be compared to the rate of water in a pipe. Current is typically measured in amperes (A). (1 ampere = 1000 milliamperes (mA)).  Alternating Current (AC) refers to when a current in a circuit reverses polarity or changes direction in current flow 60 times per second (60 Hz).  Direct Current (DC) refers to a current flowing only from positive to negative. Resistance is similar to the effect of friction on the flow of water in a pipe. Water flows more freely in a large pipe than in a small one, and different materials have different resistances to the flow of electricity. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). 4-2 Grounding is the process of mechanically connecting isolated wires and equipment to the earth, with sufficient capacity to carry the fault current and to ensure the wires and equipment remain at the same potential (same voltage) as the earth (ground). Bonding is the process of joining together two conductors that do not carry currents. These may be two wires, a wire and a pipe, or these may be two pieces of equipment. Bonding is done by connecting all the metal parts that are not supposed to be carrying current during normal operations, thereby bringing them to the same electrical potential. Grounding is still required after bonding as bonding itself does not protect anything. Insulators are materials of high resistance that conduct electricity in such small quantities that it cannot normally be detected. Examples of insulators include glass, ceramic, and porcelain. Conductors are materials of low resistance that conduct electricity in large amounts. Examples of conductors include copper, aluminum, iron, salt water (brine), and most other metals. Semiconductors are materials that have a value of resistance between those of insulators and conductors. Examples of semiconductors include wood, earth, and rubber tires. Arcing: