Week 7 Lecture.pdf

CVEN4405 Human Factors in Civil and Transport Engineering Week 7 Lecture Social science of road safety Dr Milad Haghani School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Economic aspects of road safety Cognitive aspects of road safety Mathematical modelling of road safety Clinical and epidemiologi...

CVEN4405 Human Factors in Civil and Transport Engineering Week 7 Lecture Social science of road safety Dr Milad Haghani School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Economic aspects of road safety Cognitive aspects of road safety Mathematical modelling of road safety Clinical and epidemiological aspects of road safety Neuro-cognitive aspects of road safety Social science of road safety Social psychological aspects of road safety Philosophical aspects of road safety Micro-mobility aspects of road safety Week 7: Social science of road safety, safety culture and theory of planned behaviour Theory of planned behaviour • What are the main drivers that influence people in making safety-related decisions and choices, such as using seat belts, engaging in physical activity, or recycling. • There is a need for a psychological theory that can help us understand why people make certain decisions. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) provides insights into the factors influencing human behaviour. • Consider the following examples: Scenario 1 - Seat Belt Usage: Describe a situation where someone is deciding whether to wear a seat belt while driving a car. This decision involves factors such as personal attitudes, peer influence, and perceived control. Scenario 2 - Healthy Eating: A person's choice between eating a healthy salad or indulging in fast food. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control play a role in this choice. Scenario 3 - Environmental Responsibility: An individual deciding whether to recycle or not. TPB helps us understand why someone might choose to recycle based on their attitudes, social pressure, and perceived ability to do so. People make countless decisions and choices every day, and these choices can significantly impact their lives and the lives of others. TPB is a framework that helps us predict and understand why people make certain choices. It is not only about explaining behaviour but also about influencing it in a positive way. TPB is used in various fields, such as health psychology, environmental science, marketing, and public policy. It helps experts design interventions, campaigns, and strategies that encourage desirable behaviours and discourage undesirable ones. Theory of planned behaviour • The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is a psychological theory that links beliefs to behaviour. • The TPB is a theory used to understand and predict behaviours, which posits that behaviours are immediately determined by behavioural intentions and under certain circumstances, perceived behavioural control. Behavioural intentions are determined by a combination of three factors: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. • The theory maintains that three core components, namely, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, together shape an individual's behavioural intentions. In turn, a tenet of TPB is that behavioural intention is the most proximal determinant of human social behaviour. • The theory was elaborated by Icek Ajzen. TPB is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action. • The theory was intended to explain all behaviours over which people have the ability to exert self-control. • The Theory of Planned Behaviour has been applied to a number research areas including health-related behaviours (e.g., smoking, substance use, health services utilisation), environmental psychology, and voting behavior, and of course, road user behaviour. • TPB has successfully been applied to explain a wide range of transport behaviours, ranging from the use of different transport modes to safety-relevant behaviours like speeding or drunk driving. • What makes the TPB attractive is that it is a parsimonious model while still being open for the inclusion of additional factors. • Indeed, a variety of determinants have been added to complement TPB, most importantly habits and personal norm. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZsxuD3gExE According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), human behaviour is guided by three kinds of considerations: beliefs about the likely consequences and experiences associated with the behaviour (behavioral beliefs), beliefs about the normative expectations and behaviours of significant others (normative beliefs), and beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behaviour (control beliefs). In their respective aggregates, behavioural beliefs produce a favourable or unfavorable attitude toward the behaviour; normative beliefs result in perceived social pressure or subjective norm; and control beliefs give rise to perceived behavioural control or self-efficacy. The effects of attitude toward the behaviour and subjective norm on intention are moderated by perception of behavioral control. As a general rule, the more favourable the attitude and subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control, the stronger should be the person’s intention to perform the behaviour in question. Intention is thus assumed to be the immediate antecedent of behaviour. Theory of planned behaviour • BI: Behavioral intention • A: Attitude toward behaviour • b: the strength of each belief concerning an outcome or attribute • e: the evaluation of the outcome or attribute • SN: Subjective norm • n: the strength of each normative belief of each referent • m: the motivation to comply with the referent • PBC: Perceived Behavioural Control • c: the strength of each control belief • p: the perceived power of the control factor • w : empirically derived weight/coefficient • B: Behaviour • BI: Behavioural intention • PBC: Perceived Behavioural Control • w : empirically derived weight/coefficient Theory of planned behaviour • Attitudes - This refers to the degree to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour of interest. It entails a consideration of the outcomes of performing the behaviour. • Subjective norms - This refers to the belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behaviour. It relates to a person's beliefs about whether peers and people of importance to the person think he or she should engage in the behaviour. • Social norms - This refers to the customary codes of behaviour in a group or people or larger cultural context. Social norms are considered normative, or standard, in a group of people. • Perceived behavioural control - This refers to a person's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour of interest. Perceived behavioural control varies across situations and actions, which results in a person having varying perceptions of behavioural control depending on the situation. This construct of the theory was added later and created the shift from the Theory of Reasoned Action to the Theory of Planned Behaviour. • Behavioral intention - This refers to the motivational factors that influence a given behaviour where the stronger the intention to perform the behaviour, the more likely the behaviour will be performed. Theory of planned behaviour • With TPB as a theoretical framework, certain steps can be followed in efforts to increase the chances of behaviour change. The following are sample questions that may be used during an elicitation interview: • What do you like/ dislike about behavior X? • What are some disadvantages of doing behaviour X? • Who would be against your doing behaviour X? • Who can you think of that would do behaviour X? • What things make it hard for you to do behaviour X? • If you want to do behaviour X, how certain are you that you can?* *Which components/constructs of the TPB are each of the above items are related to? Theory of planned behaviour: Developing questionnaires • Step 1: Defining the behaviour Before any work can begin, the behaviour of interest must be clearly defined in terms of its target, action, context, and time elements. Example: Physical Activity - Exercising for at least 20 min, three times per week for the next three months. • Step 2: Specifying the Research Population. The population of interest to the investigators also must be clearly defined. Example: Post-operative patients - only individuals who have just undergone surgery would be included in the research population. • Step 3: Five to six items are formulated to assess each of the theory’s major constructs. Seven-point bipolar adjective scales are typically employed. Attitude: My exercising for at least 20 minutes, three times per week for the next three months improves my health would be bad :__1__:__2__:__3__:__4__:__5__:__6__:__7___: good Subjective norm: Most people who are important to me approve of my exercising agree :__1__:__2__:__3__:__4__:__5__:__6__:__7___: disagree Perceived behavioural control: I am confident that I can exercise for at least 20 minutes, three times per week true :__1__:__2__:__3__:__4__:__5__:__6__:__7___: false Intention: I intend to exercise for at least 20 minutes, three times per week for the next three months. likely :__1__:__2__:__3__:__4__:__5__:__6__:__7___: unlikely Theory of planned behaviour: Applications • Whether pre-driver education can change psychological antecedents to behaviour. • The framework of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was employed to assess the effectiveness of an educational intervention used across the UK that aims to improve attitudes to road safety in pre-drivers. • Secondary school students aged 15–16 years participated in the research, drawn from 12 schools in the UK. • Experiment 1 employed a within-participants design to measure any changes in road safety beliefs from pre- to postintervention and 5-month follow-up. A total of 791 students from 6 participating schools completed the pre-intervention questionnaires, 422 completed post-intervention questionnaires, and 258 completed follow-up questionnaires 5 months after the presentation. • Experiment 2 used a between-participants design to test whether any changes were genuine or due to experimenter effects. • Results of Experiment 1 revealed a small, short-term improvement in some pre-driver beliefs immediately following the educational intervention, but no effect on other beliefs. • The small, significant improvements found in Experiment 1 were replicated in Experiment 2, which is consistent with there being a genuine effect. • Considering evidence from both experiments suggests the effectiveness of road safety education interventions are at best short term, and limited to some but not all psychological factors. Theory of planned behaviour: Applications Theory of planned behaviour: Applications • Applying the TPB to the prediction of pedestrians’ road crossing intention. • Respondents (n=210) completed questionnaires which included scenarios of three potentially dangerous road crossing behaviours, followed by measures of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, self-identity and intention. • The questionnaire outlined three potentially dangerous road crossing behaviours: (i) crossing a dual carriageway, (ii) crossing at a pelican crossing against a ‘red man’, (iii) crossing a busy residential road network between parked cars. • The perceived behavioural control component emerged as the strongest predictor of pedestrians’ intentions. • Attitude (an example): “My crossing the dual carriageway would get me to my car more quickly” (scored: unlikely (-3) …. Likely (+3)). • Subjective norm: respondents were asked to indicate whether the likelihood that the police or family or friends or children or motorists or other pedestrians would approve or disapprove of them crossing the road in the depicted manner. • Behavioural control (an example): “I would find crossing the dual carriageway easy/difficult” (scored: unlikely (-3) …. Likely (+3)). • Behavioural intention: Respondents were asked how likely it was that they would cross the road in the manner depicted in the scenario (scored: unlikely (-3) …. Likely (+3)). Theory of planned behaviour: Applications • The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) plus moral norms, anticipated regret, past behaviour, self-identity and perceived susceptibility was applied to predicting motorcyclists’ intention to ride above the speed. Theory of planned behaviour: Limitations • It assumes the person has acquired the opportunities and resources to be successful in performing the desired behaviour, regardless of the intention. • It does not account for other variables that factor into behavioural intention and motivation, such as fear, threat, mood, or past experience. • While it does consider normative influences, it still does not take into account environmental or economic factors that may influence a person's intention to perform a behaviour. • It assumes that behaviour is the result of a linear decision-making process, and does not consider that it can change over time. • While the added construct of perceived behavioural control was an important addition to the theory, it doesn't say anything about actual control over behaviour. • The time frame between "intent" and "behavioral action" is not addressed by the theory. Theory of planned behaviour: Summary and recap • The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) a cognitive theory by Azjen (1985) that proposes that an individual’s decision to engage in a specific behavior such as gambling or stopping gambling can be predicated by their intention to engage in that behavior. According to TPB intentions are determined by three variables: • Personal attitudes - This is our personal attitude towards a particular behavior. It is the sum of all our knowledge, attitudes, prejudices …. positive and negative that we think of when we consider the behavior. For example, our individual attitude to smoking might include tobacco is relaxing and makes me feel good but it makes me cough in the morning, costs a lot of money and smells bad. • Subjective norms - This considers how we view the ideas of other people about the specific behavior e.g., smoking. This could be the attitude of family and friends and colleagues to smoking. It is not what other people think but our perception of others’ attitudes. • Perceived behavioral control - This is the extent to which we believe we can control our behavior. This depends on our perception of internal factors such as our own ability and determination and external factors such as the resources and support available to us. The theory argues that our perception of behavioral control has two effects: It affects our intentions to behave in a certain way i.e., the more control we think we have over our behavior, the stronger our intention to perform the behavior. It also affects our behavior directly, if we perceive that we have a high level of control we will try harder and longer to succeed. The present view of perceived behavioral control, however, is most compatible with Bandura*s (1977, 1982) concept of perceived self efficacy which is concerned with judgments of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations (Bandura, 1982, p. 122). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFn-IOcpd8A Theory of planned behaviour Let’s practice with the theory: Example #1: Understanding university students’ intention to use public transportation for commute to campus Example #2: Assessing commuters’ intention to replace their regular car with an electric car Example #3: Understanding students’ intentions to attend extra-curricular activities at school Example #4: Measuring citizens’ intentions to participate in recycling programs Example #5: Evaluating individuals’ intentions to donate to charitable organisations Safety culture • Safety culture concept has been traditionally applied to an organisation and its members (this includes beliefs, attitudes, and values of an organisation’s members regarding the pursuit of safety (i.e., informal aspects), as well as the structures, practices, controls, and policies designed to enhance safety (i.e., formal aspects)). • The concept of organisational safety culture is usually traced to the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, which led to a shift of focus in the investigations and studies of safety in organisations. • The concept is differentiable from “safety climate”. • Safety climate can be conceived of as “snapshots”, or manifestations of safety culture. Safety culture expresses itself through safety climate, and safety culture is generally measured by means of Safety Climate Questionnaires (SCQs). • Recent research suggests that the concept of safety culture, specified as traffic safety culture, may have great potential for improving traffic safety. • How can this concept be applied to traffic safety? • Which analytical unit the traffic safety concept can be applied to? (i) local communities, (ii) nations, (iii) peer groups Main criteria: a) Is it well defined? b) Can it be used to explain traffic safety behaviour? c) Is it possible to influence? d) Does it provide new insights into traffic safety problems? • While the local community alternative and national alternative appear too heterogeneous, the peer group alternative provides what seems to be a new and promising basis for targeted traffic safety interventions. Safety culture • Studies of organisational safety culture and safety climate among professional (or work-related) drivers in road transport often combine organisational Safety Culture Questionnaire or SCQ with questionnaires measuring self-reported driving behaviours (e.g., the Driving Behaviour Questionnaire), self-reported accidents, attitudes to various traffic safety interventions targeting risky behaviours, perceptions of risky behaviours, and so forth (e.g. Davey et al., 2006, Bjørnskau and Longva, 2009). • In 2006, the American Automobile Association (AAA) initiated a new research effort and long-term commitment to address traffic safety culture in the USA. since 2008 the AAA has assessed traffic safety culture in the US population through annual public surveys, also known as the “Traffic Safety Culture Index”. These nationally representative surveys measure knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours relevant to traffic safety, and track them over time. • AAA defines traffic safety culture broadly as: (. . .) a social climate in which traffic safety is highly valued and rigorously pursued. (AAA, 2009: abstract). • Another definition: perceptions people have about what behaviours are normal in their peer group and their expectations for how that group react to violations to these behavioural norms. In terms of traffic safety, this definition applies to behaviours that either increase risk (e.g., speeding) or are protective (e.g., wearing seatbelts), as well as behaviours related to acceptance or rejection of traffic safety interventions. • Another definition: According to the Transportation Research Board, Road Safety Culture refers to “the values and beliefs shared among groups of road users and stakeholders that influence their decisions to behave and act in ways that affect road safety.” Safety culture • National focus on individual freedom versus paternalistic values is a fundamental theme, which defines the status of traffic safety in different countries. • Examining the role of such values in road safety culture based on survey data from car and bus drivers from three countries with distinctly different road safety records: Norway (N = 596), Israel (N = 129) and Greece (N = 386). • Norway has the highest road safety level in Europe, Israel performs better than the EU average, while Greece is below. • Hypothesising a higher focus on individual freedom to take risk and lower focus on paternalism among the Greek drivers being associated with poorer road safety outcomes. • Results show that Greek drivers value freedom to take risk in traffic higher than drivers from Norway and Israel. Greek drivers also expect higher levels of risk taking from other drivers in their country, they report higher levels of risky driving themselves, and are more often involved in accidents. • It seems that values have an important role in Road Safety Culture (RSC), legitimising and motivating risky driving, which are related to accidents. • National focus on individual freedom vs. paternalistic values defines the status of traffic safety in different countries. Safety culture Safety culture Road Safety Culture (A summary) Definition of Road Safety Culture: Road safety culture refers to the collective values, attitudes, and behaviours within a society or community that prioritse safe and responsible actions on the road. Characteristics of a Strong Road Safety Culture: • • • • • A shared commitment to safety. Respect for traffic laws and regulations. Open communication about safety concerns. A focus on prevention and continuous improvement. Collective responsibility for road safety. Importance of Road Safety Culture: • • A strong road safety culture can significantly reduce the number of accidents and injuries on the road. It fosters an environment where road users actively make safe choices and encourage others to do the same. Examples of Road Safety Culture Initiatives: • • Public awareness campaigns that promote safe driving behaviours. Community programs that encourage responsible road use. Road Safety Culture (summary) • Road safety culture refers to the shared values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs within a society or a specific group that influence how individuals and communities approach road safety. It encompasses the collective mindset and social norms related to safe road usage. • Key elements of road safety culture include: 1. Awareness and Knowledge: Individuals are aware of the importance of road safety and possess the knowledge required to make safe choices on the road. This involves understanding traffic laws, recognizing potential hazards, and knowing how to respond to them. 2. Attitudes and Perceptions: People's attitudes toward road safety influence their behavior. A strong road safety culture promotes positive attitudes and perceptions about safe driving, respect for others on the road, and the willingness to adhere to traffic regulations. 3. Social Norms: Social norms play a crucial role in shaping behavior. A positive road safety culture leads to societal norms that discourage risky behaviors such as speeding, driving under the influence, and using mobile devices while driving. 4. Risk Perception: An effective road safety culture encourages individuals to accurately assess risks and understand the potential consequences of their actions on the road. It promotes defensive driving and responsible decision-making. • Measuring and evaluating road safety culture is a complex process that involves assessing various aspects of people's attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and the social environment related to road safety. Here are some common methods and approaches to measure and evaluate road safety culture: 1. Surveys and Questionnaires: Conduct surveys and questionnaires to collect data on people's attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors related to road safety. Questions may focus on topics like seatbelt usage, speeding, driving under the influence, distracted driving, and perceptions of risk. Analyzing the responses can provide insights into the prevailing road safety culture. 2. Focus Groups: Organize focus group discussions with road users to explore their perceptions, experiences, and opinions on road safety issues. This qualitative approach can provide in-depth insights into the cultural and social aspects of road safety. 3. Observational Studies: Use observational methods to assess actual road user behavior. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCMxAktDsE0 Behavioural change • In transport psychology, behavioral change is understood as the adaption of transport behaviour as a consequence of changes in psychological factors and processes, which are assumed to determine behaviour. • Such changes can be triggered by psychological interventions, by changes in the life-course, or in the social and physical environment (e.g., traffic infrastructure, road safety legislation, social norms, and policies). • It has been shown that interventions that are based on a theoretical framework are more effective in changing behaviour than non-theory-based intervention. • The most often applied theoretical framework in transport research to explain transport behavior is Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). • A specific behavior (e.g., driving within the speed limit) results from the intention to engage in this behaviour. The stronger the intention, the more likely it is that the intention results in the respective behaviour. Intention is influenced by attitude toward the behaviour, which is the evaluation of the consequences of the behaviour (good/bad), and subjective norm, which is the perception of social approval or support of the behaviour. • Subjective norm was first only measured by injunctive norm or related beliefs (e.g., “My friends don’t mind if I drive faster than allowed”) but has later been supplemented by descriptive norm, which is the behaviour that is observed in others (e.g., “My friends often drive faster than allowed”). Descriptive norm has been found to be more relevant than injunctive norm for safety-relevant behaviour. Personal norm (PN) is defined as the perceived moral obligation to engage in a behaviour. Behavioural change • Main psychological factors of the presented models and shows the related interventions. Behavioural change • Intervention strategies related to stages of change: Behavioural change Current psychological models—or at least their empirical operationalisation in transport research—often assume a directed causal relation from attitude to behaviour. However, there is increasing evidence of a reciprocal relationship. This is also supported by the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, which assumes that people tend to align their attitudes and behaviours to avoid mental discomfort. From an intervention perspective, this implies that it is both relevant to try to change people’s attitudes and to provide opportunities to test or practice new behaviours. The latter may lead to a re-evaluation of attitudes and perceived barriers—if the social and physical environment supports that the new behaviour results in a positive experience. Thus, a combination of efforts to improve the social and physical environment with tailored psychological interventions seems most promising to achieve a change of behaviour that results in increased health, wellbeing, and environmental protection. Behavioural change Let’s discuss an example of Cognitive Dissonance.