Week 4 Anatomy PDF

Name of Department : Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation (English) Course Code and Name : ANATOMY (BEY 141-E) Course Week : 3 Course Day and Time : Wednesday (9:00 to 12:50) ROOM -308 (Block-B) InformationCourse Credit/ACTS :...

Name of Department : Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation (English) Course Code and Name : ANATOMY (BEY 141-E) Course Week : 3 Course Day and Time : Wednesday (9:00 to 12:50) ROOM -308 (Block-B) InformationCourse Credit/ACTS : 4 Examination Type and Gradings : Assignments and Mcqs Instructor’s Name & Surname : Dr. Nasir Mustafa E-mail & Phone: : [email protected] Instructor’s Room : 304 Block - B Office Hours : 9:00 to 18:00 GBS Link : https://gbs.gelisim.edu.tr/ders-detay-17-316-5675-2 ALMS Link : https://lms.gelisim.edu.tr/almsp/u/Home/Index AVESIS Link : https://avesis.gelisim.edu.tr/nmustafa  | 14 WEEKS’S COURSE CONTENTS | 1. Introduction to Anatomy and 9. Nervous System I Related Terms 10. Nervous System II 2. Terminology, Human Body, 11. Circulatory System I Topographic Anatomy 3. Locomotory System - Osteology 12. Circulatory System II 4. Locomotory System - Osteology 13. Respiratory System I 5. Locomotory System – Arthrology 14. Respiratory System II 6. Locomotory System – Myology 15. General Overview 7. Locomotory System - Myology 8. MID-TERM EXAM 16. FINAL EXAM  | Course Assessment | Activities could be quizzes, assignments, presentation, report, project, ………..  | NOTE | Attendance Attendance is mandatory for all scheduled lectures.  | NOTE | Assignment Deliver the assignments before the deadline.  | NOTE | Quiz Quizzes will be held online. (No excuses)  | NOTE | Be Responsible Come to class on time.  | NOTE | Be disciplined Avoid talking to friends in the class.  | NOTE | Show discipline Mobiles are not allowed in the class.  | WEEKLY LEARNING OUTCOMES | Understand the structure and function of the bones of the lower limb: Study the gross anatomy of the femur, tibia, fibula, patella, and foot bones (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges). Identify key bone landmarks of the lower limb: Femur: Recognize the head, neck, greater and lesser trochanters, linea aspera, and condyles. Tibia: Locate the medial and lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity, and medial malleolus. Fibula: Identify the head and lateral malleolus. Patella: Understand its articulating surfaces and role in knee joint function. Explore the microscopic structure and growth of lower limb bones: Learn about bone development, growth plates, and remodeling in the femur, tibia, and fibula. Analyze the role of lower limb bones in weight-bearing and movement: Understand how the bones of the lower limb support body weight and facilitate locomotion.  | ABOUT THE PREVIOUS LESSON | Understand the structure and function of human bones: Learn the gross anatomy and the roles of major bones in the body. Study the microscopic structure and growth of bones (Osteology): Explore how bones develop, remodel, and repair at a cellular level. Identify key bone marks and landmarks: Clavicle: Recognize important features like the sternal end, acromial end, and conoid tubercle. Humerus: Locate landmarks such as the head, greater and lesser tubercles, and epicondyles. Radius: Identify structures like the head, radial tuberosity, and styloid process. Ulna: Understand the olecranon process, trochlear notch, and coronoid process. Carpal bones: Study and differentiate the eight carpal bones in the wrist.  | DAILY FLOW | 09:00-09:50/ 1st Hour 10:00-10:50/ 2nd Hour 11:00-11:50/ 3rd Hour 12:00-12:50/ 4th Hour 13:00-13:50/ 5th Hour  Depth and Breath Conceptual Depth and Practical Depth Thematic Breadth and Interdisciplinary Breadth Teaching Methods and Techniques Lectures: Traditional method where the instructor presents information to the class. Effective for delivering large amounts of content efficiently. Presentation: Interactive sessions that allow for deeper discussion, hands-on practice, and exploration of specific topics. Group Projects: Collaborative work that encourages teamwork and application of concepts in a practical context. Problem-Based Learning (PBL): Students work on complex, real-world problems, which helps develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Flipped Classroom: Students review lecture material at home and engage in interactive activities during class time to deepen understanding. Online Learning Modules: Use of digital platforms for delivering content, quizzes, and interactive activities that allow for flexible learning. Assessments and Feedback: Regular evaluations through quizzes, exams, and assignments, coupled with constructive feedback to guide learning progress. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, students will be able to: Gross Anatomy of Human Bones: Identify and describe major human bones. Osteology: Understand bone development and types. Bone Marks and Landmarks: Recognize key bone marks of the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, hip bone, femur, tibia, fibula, and tarsal bones.  CARTILAGE Cartilage is a connective tissue composed of cells (condrocytes) and fibers embedded in a frim gel like matrix which is rich in mucopolysacharide. It is much more elasic than bone. TYPES OF CARTILAGE General Feature 1)Cartilage has no blood vessel & nerves. 2)Cartilage is surrounded by fibrous membrane called perichondrium. 3)When cartilage calcifies the chondrocytes die and the cartilage is replaced by bone. TYPES OF CARTILAGE:- 1) HYALINE CARTILAGE 2) FIBRO CARTILAGE 3) ELASTIC CARTILAGE JOINT Joint is the junction between two or more bones. It is a device to permit movements.  TYPES OF JOINT 1) Fibrous Joint 2) Cartilaginous Joint 3) Synovial Joint SYNOVIAL JOINTS Synovial joints are the most mobile type of joint. CHARACTERISTICS:- The articular surface are covered with hyaline cartilage. Articular cartilage is avascular, non nervous and elastic. Lubricated with synovial fluid. SYNOVIAL JOINTS:- Between the articular surface there is a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid. The cavity is divided by articular cartilage and meniscus. The joint is surrounded by an articular capsule which is fibrous. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint and nourishes the articular cartilage. The viscosity of fluid is due to hyaluronic acid secreted by the cells of synovial membrane.  Joints (Fibrous Joints)  Sutures  Occur only between bones of the skull  Syndesmoses  Permits slight movement  Interosseous membrane Between the radius and ulna in the forearm  Gomphoses  Immovable joint  Joint in which a cone-shaped peg fits into a socket  Articulations of the teeth with the sockets of the maxillae and mandible  Fibrous joint (synarthrosis) 1. Suture 2. Gomphosis 3. Syndesmosis  Joints (Cartilaginous Joints) Lacks a synovial cavity Allows little or no movement Joint is tightly connected by either cartilage Two types of cartilaginous joints Synchondroses Symphyses  Cartilaginous joints: (amphiarthrosis) 1. Synchondoses: when bone is bound /joined by hyaline cartilage The growth plate in long bones The first rib attaches to the sternum (ONLY the first rib) 2. Symphyses: where bones are joined by fibrous cartilage Pubic bone (pelvis) Between vertebrae Joints (Cartilaginous Joints) Synchondroses Connecting tissue is hyaline cartilage Epiphyseal (growth) plate Symphyses Slightly movable joint Ends of the articulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, but a disc of fibrocartilage connects the bones Pubic symphysis Between the anterior surfaces of the hip bones Intervertebral joints between the vertebrae  Joints (Synovial Joints) Synovial cavity allows a joint to be freely movable Ligaments hold bones together in a synovial joint Articular Capsule A sleeve-like capsule encloses the synovial cavity The articular capsule is composed of two layers an outer fibrous capsule an inner synovial membrane Synovial Fluid The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid Functions to reduce friction by: lubricating the joint absorbing shocks supplying oxygen and nutrients to the cartilage removing carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the cartilage Joints (Synovial Joints)  Synovial joints - Very complex - “synovial” joint because the joints are separated by a space (“synovial cavity”), where synovial fluid is retained - Synovial fluid rich in albumin (blood protein) and hyaluronic acid (a lubricant)  Synovial joints - Joint membrane: - Outer fibrous capsule (continuous with the periosteum) - Inner synovial membrane secretes the synovial fluid into the joint capsule - Each bone involved in the joint is covered by articular cartilage  2 mm thick -The bones making up the joint are “held together” by ligaments Help to locate the bones in the correct “place” so that their articular cartilage “rides” correctly  Classification of the synovial joint Classified into 7 types 1. The ball and socket type For example : shoulder joint Bones : humerus and scapula Ball : the head of the humerus Socket : primary socket is the glenoid cavity of the scapula secondary socket is the coraco-acromial ligament The ball and socket type (continue) Movement : multiaxial - flex, extend, adduct,abduct and circumduction Joint capsule : thin fibrous membrane middle Ligaments : coraco-humeral, superior, ligaments and inferior gleno-humeral  2. Hinge type For example : the elbow joint Bones : humerus, ulna and radius Movement: around horizontal axis flex and extend : thicken at Joint capsule: thin at the anterior and posterior sides medial and lateral sides : lateral or Ligaments : medial or ulnar collateral ligament radial collateral ligament  3. Pivot type For example : proximal radio-ulnar joint Bones : radius and ulna Movement : around the vertical axis ; medial and lateral rotation Ligament : annular ligament  4. Ellipsoidal type For example : wrist or radio-carpal joint Bones : distal end of radius, scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum Movement : modified hinge type; flex, extend, adduct and abduct : lateral or Ligaments : medial or ulnar collateral ligament radial collateral ligament 5. Plane or gliding type For example : intercarpal joints Bones : carpal bones Movement : gliding Ligaments : interosseous ligaments  6. Saddle type For example :1st carpometacarpal joint Bones : 1st metacarpal bone and trapezium abduct and Movement : flex, extend, adduct, circumduct  7. Condyloid type For example : metacarpophalangeal joint (MP) interphalangeal joint (IP) Bones : metacarpal bone, phalanges Movement : flex and extend, (adduct, abduct) ligaments Ligaments : medial and lateral collatera Anatomy means to cut the body in order to examine the parts and there relations to one another. Anatomy is the branch of science that deals with the structure of organisms and their parts. Derived from the Greek word "anatome," meaning dissection, it involves studying the organization and arrangement of the body, including the relationships between different structures. BONE A bone is a rigid structure in the body that provides support, protection, and aids in movement. It also stores minerals like calcium, produces blood cells in the bone marrow, and stores fat for energy. Bones are made of a tough outer layer (compact bone) and a spongy inner layer (spongy bone).  The human skeletal system comprises 206 bones, joints, and cartilage. Bones provide structural support, protect organs, enable movement, and store minerals. Joints connect bones, allowing mobility, while cartilage covers joint surfaces, reducing friction. The skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton (80 bones of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage) and the appendicular skeleton (126 bones of the limbs and girdles).  The Axial Skeleton The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones that form the central axis of the body, including: Skull: Comprising the cranium and facial bones. Vertebral column: Including 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. Thoracic cage: 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum. The Appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton includes 126 bones involved in movement and limb support: Pectoral girdle: Consists of the clavicles and scapulae (shoulder blades). Upper limbs: Includes the humerus (upper arm), radius and ulna (forearm), carpals (wrist bones), metacarpals (hand bones), and phalanges (finger bones). Pelvic girdle: Formed by the hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis). Lower limbs: Includes the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (leg bones), tarsals (ankle bones), metatarsals (foot bones), and phalanges (toe bones). HIP BONE The osteology of the hip bone (also known as the coxal bone or pelvic bone) is essential for understanding the structural support and movements of the pelvis. The hip bone is a large, irregular bone made up of three fused components: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. These bones fuse during adolescence to form a single structure by adulthood. HIP BONE HIP BONE  1. Ilium HIP Location: The largest and most superior part of the hip bone. BONE Notable landmarks: Iliac crest: The superior, curved border of the ilium, which serves as an important attachment point for muscles. Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS): A bony projection at the anterior end of the iliac crest. Anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS): A smaller projection just below the ASIS. Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS): Located at the posterior end of the iliac crest. Greater sciatic notch: A large indentation below the PSIS that allows for the passage of nerves and vessels. HIP BONE  2. Ischium HIP Location: The lower, posterior portion of the hip bone. Notable landmarks: BONE Ischial spine: A pointed projection that separates the greater sciatic notch from the lesser sciatic notch. Ischial tuberosity: A roughened area on the inferior aspect of the ischium, important for sitting and serving as a muscle attachment site. Lesser sciatic notch: A smaller indentation located below the ischial spine. HIP BONE  3. Pubis HIP Location: The anterior portion of the hip bone. Notable landmarks: BONE Pubic symphysis: A fibrocartilaginous joint where the two pubic bones meet at the midline. Pubic tubercle: A small projection near the pubic symphysis, serving as an attachment point for ligaments. Superior and inferior pubic rami: These are extensions of the pubis that connect to the ilium and ischium, respectively. HIP BONE  4. Acetabulum HIP A deep, cup-shaped cavity formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis. It articulates with the BONE head of the femur to form the hip joint. 5. Obturator Foramen A large opening created by the ischium and pubis, covered by a membrane, through which blood vessels and nerves pass. HIP BONE  The Ischium HIP The posterio-inferior part of the hip bone is formed by the ischium. Much like the pubis, it is BONE composed of a body, an inferior and a superior ramus. The inferior ischial ramus combines with the inferior pubic ramus forming the ischiopubic ramus which encloses part of the obturator foramen. The posteror-inferior aspect of the ischium forms the ischial tuberosities. On the posterior aspect of the ischium there is an indentation known as the greater sciatic notch, with the ischial spine at its most inferior edge. HIP BONE FEMUR (osteology) The femur, or thigh bone, is the longest and strongest bone in the human body. It serves as the primary support structure for the lower limb and plays a crucial role in bearing the body's weight and facilitating movement. FEMUR  FEMUR 1. Proximal End Head of the Femur: A rounded, ball-like structure that articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone, forming the hip joint. It is covered with articular cartilage except at the fovea capitis, a small depression where the ligament of the head of the femur (ligamentum teres) attaches. Neck of the Femur: A narrowed, cylindrical region just below the head. It connects the head to the shaft and is a common site for fractures, especially in elderly individuals. Greater Trochanter: A large, prominent projection located lateral to the neck of the femur. It serves as a major attachment point for muscles like the gluteus medius and minimus. Lesser Trochanter: A smaller projection located on the posteromedial aspect of the femur, just below the neck. It is an attachment site for the iliopsoas muscle. Intertrochanteric Line: A ridge running between the greater and lesser trochanters on the anterior surface of the femur, serving as an attachment site for ligaments. Intertrochanteric Crest: A prominent ridge on the posterior surface of the femur, connecting the two trochanters. It houses the quadrate tubercle, which serves as a muscle attachment site. FEMUR  FEMUR 2. Shaft (Body) of the Femur Linea Aspera: A longitudinal ridge that runs along the posterior surface of the shaft. It serves as the attachment site for various muscles, including the adductor muscles of the thigh. The medial and lateral lips of the linea aspera serve as attachment points for additional muscles. Gluteal Tuberosity: A roughened area at the upper part of the linea aspera where the gluteus maximus muscle inserts. Pectineal Line: A line running from the lesser trochanter to the linea aspera, serving as the insertion point for the pectineus muscle. Nutrient Foramen: A small opening in the shaft through which blood vessels enter to nourish the bone.  FEMUR 3. Distal End Medial and Lateral Condyles: Two rounded prominences at the distal end of the femur that articulate with the tibia to form the knee joint. Medial and Lateral Epicondyles: Bony protrusions located above the condyles, serving as attachment points for ligaments of the knee. Adductor Tubercle: A small bump located on the Anterior surface of the distal right femur. medial epicondyle, where the adductor magnus muscle inserts. Intercondylar Fossa (Notch): A deep groove located between the medial and lateral condyles on the posterior side. It accommodates important ligaments of the knee joint. Patellar Surface (Trochlear Groove): A smooth, anterior surface between the condyles where the patella (kneecap) glides during knee movement. Posterior surface of the distal right femur. FEMUR  FEMUR 4. Angles and Curvatures Angle of Inclination: The angle formed between the neck and the shaft of the femur, typically around 125° in adults. It helps position the femur for efficient weight distribution. Angle of Torsion: Refers to the angle between the axis of the femoral head/neck and the axis of the femoral condyles. It is important for proper alignment and gait. FEMUR  FEMUR Femur Fractures: 1.Neck of Femur Fracture: Common in older adults, often due to falls and osteoporosis. Poor blood supply, especially via the medial circumflex femoral artery, increases the risk of nonunion and avascular necrosis. Treatment usually involves surgical fixation or hip replacement. 2.Shaft Fractures: Typically caused by high-energy trauma (e.g., car accidents). Treatment includes intramedullary nailing or plate fixation. 3.Intertrochanteric Fractures: Occur between the greater and lesser trochanters. Though better vascularized, they require surgery, commonly with dynamic hip screws or other fixation methods. Tibia In human the tibia is the second largest bone in the body, this is due to its function as a weight bearing structure. As in other vertebrates the tibia is one of two bones in the lower leg, the other being the fibula, and is a component of the knee and ankle joints. The tibia is the main bone of the leg, commonly known as the shin. It expands at the proximal and distal ends, articulating at the knee and ankle joints respectively.  TIBIA 1. Proximal End Medial and Lateral Condyles: The upper end of the tibia has two condyles that articulate with the femoral condyles to form part of the knee joint. Medial condyle is larger and more prominent. Lateral condyle is smaller and includes the facet for the fibula (where the head of the fibula articulates). Intercondylar Eminence: A ridge between the medial and lateral condyles, with medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles, which provide attachment for ligaments and menisci of the knee. Tibial Plateau: The flat surface on top of the tibia that articulates with the femur. It consists of both condyles and the intercondylar area. Tibial Tuberosity: A bony prominence on the anterior side of the proximal tibia where the patellar ligament inserts.  TIBIA 2. Shaft (Body) of the Tibia Anterior Border: A sharp edge running down the front of the tibia, also known as the shin, which is palpable under the skin. Medial Surface: Smooth and subcutaneous, easily palpable on the inner side of the leg. Lateral (Interosseous) Border: The border that faces the fibula, where the interosseous membrane connects the tibia to the fibula. Soleal Line: A ridge on the posterior surface of the tibia, where the soleus muscle attaches. TIBIA  TIBIA 3. Distal End Medial Malleolus: A prominent projection on the medial side of the distal tibia, which helps form the ankle joint by articulating with the talus. Fibular Notch: A notch on the lateral side of the distal tibia where the distal end of the fibula articulates (forming the distal tibiofibular joint). Inferior Articular Surface: A smooth, flat surface on the distal end of the tibia that articulates with the talus bone in the ankle joint. TIBIA  TIBIA 4. Functions The tibia is crucial for weight-bearing and forms the lower part of the knee joint and the medial part of the ankle joint. It provides attachment points for several muscles and ligaments essential for movement and stability.  TIBIA Proximal Tibial Fractures: Result from high-energy trauma or low-energy injuries in osteoporotic patients, potentially disrupting knee alignment. Treatment often involves open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF). Tibial Shaft Fractures: Caused by direct trauma or falls, these fractures may be closed or open. Surgical intervention like intramedullary nailing is typically required. Distal Tibial (Pilon) Fractures: Occur near the ankle from falls or accidents, potentially affecting the articular surface and leading to arthritis. Treatment usually involves ORIF. TIBIA FIBULA The Fibula is the lateral bone of the leg and is homologous with the ulna of the forearm. In Latin, the term fibula means “pin”; therefore the lateral bone of leg is rightly referred to as fibula because it’s a long pin-like bone. It’s a long thin postaxial bone of the leg and will not take part in the transmission of the body weight.  FIBULA 1. Proximal End Head of the Fibula: The upper end is rounded and articulates with the lateral aspect of the tibia at the fibular notch. The head provides attachment for the biceps femoris muscle and the ligament of the fibula. Neck of the Fibula: The region just below the head, which is often palpated. 2. Shaft (Body) of the Fibula The shaft is slender and has three borders: Anterior Border: Easily palpable, running along the front of the fibula. Medial Border: Faces the tibia and is smooth. Lateral Border: The outer edge that serves as an attachment site for muscles. FIBULA  FIBULA 3. Distal End Lateral Malleolus: The prominent bony projection at the distal end, forming the outer part of the ankle joint. It provides stability to the ankle and serves as an attachment point for ligaments. Fibular Notch: The notch on the tibia where the distal fibula articulates, forming the distal tibiofibular joint. 4. Functions The fibula primarily provides lateral stability to the ankle and serves as a muscle attachment site. It does not bear significant weight compared to the tibia but plays a role in the overall stability of the lower limb during movement.  FIBULA SIDE DECISION AND ANATOMICAL POSITION The side of fibula can be set by holding it vertically in this kind of style that: Its round end termed head is directed upward. Its comparatively flattened end is pointed downward. A triangular articular facet on its lower end faces medially. A depression at the lower end (malleolar fossa) is located behind and below the triangular articular facet at this end. FIBULA  FIBULA The fibula is frequently utilized as a source of bone for grafting due to its non-weight-bearing nature. Here are some key points regarding the use of the fibula for bone grafts and its clinical significance: Non-Weight Bearing: The fibula does not transmit body weight, making it an ideal candidate for harvesting bone grafts without compromising weight-bearing function in the lower limb. Subcutaneous Location: The upper and lower ends of the fibula are easily accessible since they are subcutaneous and palpable, facilitating surgical procedures. Common Peroneal Nerve: The common peroneal nerve runs near the neck of the fibula, where it can be susceptible to injury during surgery or trauma. Care must be taken to avoid nerve damage when harvesting the fibula for grafting. Pott’s Fracture: In the first stage of Pott’s fracture, a spiraling fracture occurs at the lower end of the fibula. This type of fracture is important to recognize due to its implications for ankle stability. FIBULA Clinical Applications Bone grafts from the fibula can be used in various clinical scenarios, including: Bone Defects: Repairing bone defects due to trauma, tumor resection, or congenital anomalies. Reconstructive Surgery: Providing structural support in reconstructive procedures, particularly in the lower limb. Fracture Nonunions: Addressing nonunions or malunions by providing biological and structural support. Anatomy of the Foot The tarsal bones are a group of seven bones in the foot that make up the posterior part of the foot, connecting the foot to the leg and allowing for various movements and weight-bearing functions.  Quick Quiz How many phalanges are in the foot? 14 How many metatarsals are in the foot? 5 How many tarsals are in the foot? 7 In total, how many bones are in the foot? 26  | WHAT TO TAKE HOME? | Key takeaways from Anatomy and Bone course: The key takeaways focused on the lower limb from your Anatomy and Bone course: 1.Gross Anatomy of Lower Limb Bones: 1. Study of the femur, tibia, fibula, patella, and the bones of the foot (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges). 2. Understanding the structural role these bones play in supporting body weight and enabling movement. 2.Key Landmarks of the Lower Limb: 1. Femur: Greater/lesser trochanter, head, neck, condyles. 2. Tibia: Medial/lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity, medial malleolus. 3. Fibula: Head and lateral malleolus. 4. Patella: Articulating surfaces crucial for knee joint movement. 5. Tarsal bones: Calcaneus, talus, navicular, and others forming the ankle and foot. 3.Bone Function in Locomotion: 1. The lower limb bones are crucial for weight-bearing, balance, and movement (walking, running, standing). 2. The joint articulations in the hip, knee, and ankle are supported by specific bone landmarks. 4.Osteology of the Lower Limb: 1. Understanding how the bones grow, remodel, and repair, especially under mechanical stress from movement and weight- bearing activities.  | QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS | Questions: What are the key features of the hip bone? What is the structure of the femur, and what are its major landmarks? What are the characteristics of the tibia and fibula? How do the tarsal bones contribute to foot mechanics? What distinguishes the function of the tibia from that of the fibula? How do the articulations of the femur affect its movement and stability? Suggestions: Visual Aids:Use diagrams and 3D models of bones. Hands-On Activities:Organize bone dissection labs and palpation exercises. Group Discussions:Discuss bone structure in relation to common injuries. Assessment Methods:Create quizzes or flashcards on bone landmarks. Supplementary Resources:Provide access to online resources and videos on bone health.  | RECOMMENDED WEEKLY STUDIES | DAY 1: Clavicle and Scapula Key Landmarks: Clavicle: Sternal end, acromial end, conoid tubercle. Scapula: Spine, acromion, glenoid cavity, coracoid process. DAY 2: Humerus Key Features: Head, neck, greater/lesser tubercles, medial/lateral epicondyles, trochlea, capitulum. DAY 3: Radius, Ulna, and Carpal Bones Key Landmarks: Radius: Head, radial tuberosity. Ulna: Olecranon process, trochlear notch. Carpal Bones: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate. DAY 4: Carpal Bones Overview Key Points: Arrangement in proximal/distal rows, functions in wrist movement. DAY 5: Hip Bone (Pelvis) Key Landmarks: Ilium, ischium, pubis, acetabulum, iliac crest. DAY 6: Femur Key Features: Head, neck, greater/lesser trochanters, condyles. DAY 7: Tibia, Fibula, and Foot Key Landmarks: Tibia: Medial/lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity. Fibula: Head. Foot: Tarsal bones (talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, cuneiforms).  | REFERENCES | Gray's Anatomy for Students – Detailed anatomy textbook. Terminologia Anatomica – Standard for anatomical terms. Human Anatomy & Physiology – Comprehensive guide to body systems. Atlas of Human Anatomy – Visual reference for anatomy. Essential Clinical Anatomy – Combines clinical applications with anatomy.  | ABOUT THE NEXT WEEK | Next Week’s Topic: Anatomy of Bone Head and Neck Muscles Major Groups: Facial Muscles: Control facial expressions (e.g., orbicularis oculi, zygomaticus). Mastication Muscles: Involved in chewing (e.g., masseter, temporalis). Neck Muscles: Support head movement (e.g., sternocleidomastoid, trapezius). Body Muscles Core Muscles: Stabilize and support the torso (e.g., rectus abdominis, obliques). Back Muscles: Provide support and movement (e.g., latissimus dorsi, erector spinae). Lower Extremity Muscles Major Groups: Hip Muscles: Control movement of the thigh (e.g., gluteus maximus, iliopsoas). Thigh Muscles: Anterior (quadriceps), posterior (hamstrings), and medial compartments (adductors). Leg Muscles: Anterior (tibialis anterior), posterior (gastrocnemius), and lateral (fibularis longus). Upper Extremity Muscles Shoulder Muscles: Stabilize and move the shoulder joint (e.g., rotator cuff muscles). Arm Muscles: Flexors (biceps brachii) and extensors (triceps brachii). Forearm Muscles: Control wrist and finger movements (e.g., flexor and extensor groups).  ………….. – ………………………… Since course presentations are private, using the texts and images contained herein on social media or else without permission from the course instructor is against the regulations Law No. 6698.