Week 3 PSYU/X 3333 Social Perception 1 PDF

Week 3: PSYU/X 3333 SOCIAL PERCEPTION 1: THE SOCIAL SELF August 10, 2023 Attribution: Configuration • • • Causal Schemas – Preconceptions or theories built up from experience about how certain kinds of causes interact to produce a specific effect Allows one to interpret information quickly by co...

Week 3: PSYU/X 3333 SOCIAL PERCEPTION 1: THE SOCIAL SELF August 10, 2023 Attribution: Configuration • • • Causal Schemas – Preconceptions or theories built up from experience about how certain kinds of causes interact to produce a specific effect Allows one to interpret information quickly by comparing and integrating it with a schema Discounting & Augmenting Can internal and external attributions be distinguished? • Other categorizations of attributions e.g. multidimensional approach (Weiner, 1986) ― Locus – internal or external? ― Stability – is the cause a stable or unstable one (over time) ― Controllability – to what extent is future task performance under the actor’s control? Internal Stable External Unstable Controllable Typical effort Unusual effort Uncontrollable Ability Mood Stable Consistent help/hindrance from others Task difficulty Unstable Unusual help/hindrance from others Luck Sources of Error in Attribution • Correspondence Bias (FAE) Jones & Harris (1967) ―tendency to explain others’ actions as stemming from dispositions even in the presence of clear situational causes; tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional factors  This error is more common or stronger in individualist cultures (Western Europe, the United States, and Australia).  This error is committed against groups, as well as individuals. Fundamental Attribution Error • • • Jones & Harris (1967) – Correspondence Bias 2 (Pro/Anti- Castro Essay) x 2 (Author chose/assigned position) Estimate of author’s “real” position Dual Process Model of FAE Gilbert, Pelham, & Krull (1988) • First: Internal Attribution • Then: Consider alternative explanations ― When are we likely to make it to 2nd step?  Time  Energy  Motivation The Actor/Observer Effect • Tendency to attribute own behavior mainly to situational causes, but the behavior of others mainly to internal (dispositional) causes – Others: dispositional – Ourselves: situational • Why? – Perceptual Salience – Actors have more information about themselves than observers do. Self-Serving Attributions • • • Explanations for one’s: ― Success  internal, dispositional factors ― Failure  external, situational factors  Cognitive and motivational factors may explain this bias.  This bias is stronger in individualist cultures. Why? ― Self-esteem, presentation, available info False Consensus: Tendency to overestimate the commonality of our own opinions, beliefs, and behaviors. ― Explanations:  Self enhancement  motivation  Selective exposure to others  cognitive  Salience of own position  cognitive Defensive Attributions Explanations for behaviour that avoid feelings of vulnerability or mortality • Unrealistic Optimism ― Good things more likely ― Bad things less likely • Belief in Just World ― Bad things happen to bad people ― Good things happen to good people How accurate are our attributions? Not as accurate as we think – we are often crazy good at it, but also crazy prone to bias and error Part I: The Self The ABCs of the Self • • • • • Capacity for self-reflection (introspection) is necessary for people to feel as if they understand their own motives and emotions and the causes of their behavior. Self is heavily influenced by social factors. Affect: How we evaluate ourselves, enhance our self-images, and defend against threats to our self-esteem Behavior: How we regulate our actions and present ourselves according to interpersonal demands Cognition: How we come to know ourselves, develop a self-concept, and maintain a stable sense of identity 12 The Functions of the Self • Organizational Function: Self-knowledge ― The way understand who we are and organize information • Emotional Function (e.g., Higgins): Self-esteem ― How we maintain positive views of the self  Actual Self, Ideal Self, Ought Self  Prevention or promotion focus? • • Executive Function: Self-regulation or control • How we plan and execute behaviour and choices Impression Management: Selfpresentation • How we present ourselves and get them to view us the way we wish to be seen 13 The Nature of the Self • William James (1842-1910) ― Duality of the Self  Known (“Me”)  Knower (“I”) ― Self-Concept: Sum total of an individual’s beliefs about their own attributes  “known” ― Self-Awareness: thinking about the self and evaluate according to standards/values  “knower” 14 The Self-Concept • • Self is an important object of our attention and a product of consciousness. Self-concept is made up of self-schemas. ― Self-Schema: Beliefs about oneself that guide processing of self-relevant information.  Self is dynamic and socially situated • Social context: Sense of self may shift dramatically depending on whom we are interacting with • Distinctiveness: May highlight aspects of the self that make us feel most unique in a given context • Rudimentary self-concept ― Some primates (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans) and maybe elephants or dolphins, ― Children: Humans at 18 to 24 months via social interaction begins to emerge  Concrete, referent to characteristics like age, sex, neighborhood, and hobbies • Mature self-concept ― Less emphasis on physical characteristics ― More emphasis on psychological states and how other people judge us 15 The Self-Concept Is the Self Specially Represented in the Brain? ― Synaptic connections provide biological base for memory, making possible sense of continuity needed for normal identity (LeDoux) ― Various self-based processes can be traced to activities occurring in certain areas (Feinberg & Keenan) ― Self can be transformed or destroyed by damage to the brain and nervous system. 16 Self-concept: Cultural Influences Culture Concept: Psychology dominated by western cultural bias which influences people’s definition of social structure and coping strategies. 17 Self-concept: Cultural Influences • Individualism: • ― One’s culture values the virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance. Collectivism: ― One’s culture values the virtues of interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony. 18 What’s Your Preference: Similarity or Uniqueness? Kim and Markus (1999) Cultural Differences in Defining the Self • Independent view of the self ― Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not those of other people. ― Self seen as a distinct, autonomous entity, separate from others and defined by individual traits and preferences ― The squeaky wheel gets the grease. • Interdependent view of the self ― Defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people; recognizing one’s behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. ― Self seen as connected to others, defined by social duties and shared traits and preferences ― The nail that stands out gets pounded down. • Singelis (1994) developed scale to measure two senses of the self. Before we move on: TAKE 1 MINUTE TO DESCRIBE YOURSELF BY LISTING UP TO 20 ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT: “I am ________________________” Part II: Know Thyself How do you think of yourself? A. Physical Self-Descriptions: Refer to physical qualities that do not imply social interaction. B. Social Self-Descriptions: Refer to relationships, groups memberships, social roles, and attitudes which are socially defined and validated. C. Psychological Self-Descriptions: Refer to psychological traits or states and to attitudes which do no refer to particular social referents. D. Holistic Self-Descriptions: Refer to characteristics so comprehensive or vague that they do not distinguish one person from another. E. Other/Miscellaneous 23 Self-Knowledge (& Social Interaction) • We come to know ourselves ― Through introspection ― By observing our own behaviour ― By adopting Other people’s perspective ― By comparing ourselves to others 24 Knowing Ourselves through Introspection Introspection: The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives. ― Introspection can lead us astray. ― Most people overestimate the positives when self-assessing. • People do not rely on introspection as often as we think. Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski, 1982 ― Reasons for feelings and behavior can be outside conscious awareness. ― Not always pleasant to think about ourselves ― Although, the amount of time has increased in recent years.  Archival analysis of song lyrics for use of first-person singular pronouns Self-Awareness Theory When people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values. 26 Self-Awareness Theory • • Sometimes people go far in their attempt to escape the self. ― Focusing on the self can be very aversive. ― Unhealthy behaviors used to turn off “internal spotlight” on oneself ― However, sometimes aversive methods not damaging Self-focus is not always damaging or aversive. Culture and Self-Awareness • Heine, 2008 ― Outside perspective on self  African and East Asian Cultures ― Insider perspective on self  Western culture ― The letter “E” Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know • It can be difficult to know why we feel the way we do (E.g., Nisbett & Wilson, 1977) • Affective Forecasting & Durability Bias ― We have difficulty in predicting responses to future emotional events and tend to overestimate strength and duration of our emotional reactions. ― For negative events, we do not fully appreciate our psychological coping mechanisms.  We focus only on the emotional impact of a single event, overlooking the effects of other life experiences. Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know • • • Many mental processes outside of awareness ― Overlook reasons that are difficult to verbalize ― In many cases, people wrong about what predicts mood. ― Dating & partners; Preferences Causal Theories ― Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture. Problem ― Schemas and theories are not always correct. Can lead to incorrect judgments about the causes of our actions. ― Consequence: Reasons-Generated Attitude Change  Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one’s attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize. Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behaviour Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) • When our attitudes/feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, or internal cues are difficult to interpret, we infer these states by observing our behaviour and the situation in which it occurs. • Self–Other Knowledge Asymmetry (SOKA) ― Vazire, 2010 Self-Perception: Motivation • • • Intrinsic Motivation ― Desire to engage in activity because we enjoy it/interested, not because of external rewards or pressures. Extrinsic Motivation ― Desire to engage in activity because of external reasons. According to self-perception theory, extrinsic rewards may hurt intrinsic motivation. ― Overjustification Effect (e.g., Greene, Sternberg, & Lepper, 1976)  Tendency to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons Preserving Intrinsic Interest • Avoiding overjustification when using rewards 1. Rewards will undermine interest only if interest was initially high. 2. The type of reward makes a difference.  Performance-contingent rewards are less damaging to intrinsic interest • Task-contingent rewards ― Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done. Performance-contingent rewards ― Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task. • Motivation (and self-concept) Mindset • Fixed mindset: ― The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change • Growth mindset: ― The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow • Fixed mindset more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure Self-Perception & Emotions • Facial feedback hypothesis ― Changes in facial expression can trigger corresponding changes in the subjective experience of emotion. For example, during a play actors portray a series of emotions making audience cry or smile along with them. ― The face is not necessary to the subjective experience of emotion. • Stanley Schachter (1964): Two-Factor Theory of Emotion ― Experience of emotion is similar to other types of self-perception. We infer our emotions by observing our behavior 1. Experience physiological arousal. 2. Seek an appropriate explanation for it. Schachter and Singer (1962) • Research question ― Given the same degree of physiological arousal, will people feel different emotions depending on their environment? • Cover Story: Injection of “Suproxin” test of vision ― IV 1= Physiological Arousal  epinephrine informed (shake, heart pound, face flush)  epinephrine ignorant (mild, harmless, no side effects)  Placebo (saline, mild, harmless, no side effects) ― IV 2 = Environmental Cues (Mood of “Stooge”)  Euphoric/happy (playing games)  Angry (insulting questionnaire) ― DV = Participant’s mood Schachter and Singer (1962) • Results ― Epinephrine-informed group  Did not become angry when exposed to angry stooge • Had alternate explanation for their arousal (the drug) ― Epinephrine-ignorant group  Became euphoric • Joined stooge in playing games • Implications ― Emotions are somewhat arbitrary. ― Emotions depend on our explanations for arousal. Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal Misattribution of Arousal: The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone). When a woman approached men on a scary bridge and asked them to fill out a questionnaire, a high percentage of them were attracted to her and called her for a date. When the same woman approached men after they had crossed the bridge and had rested, relatively few called her for a date.