Personal Ethics in the Organization PDF

Personal Ethics in the Organization Professor Kathy Wilkins [email protected] What is ethics? Ethical perspectives Morals and moral behavior Personal values in ethical decisions Defining your personal values WHAT IS ETHICS? Ethics comes from the Greek term ethos, which refers to “custom” or “us...

Personal Ethics in the Organization Professor Kathy Wilkins [email protected] What is ethics? Ethical perspectives Morals and moral behavior Personal values in ethical decisions Defining your personal values WHAT IS ETHICS? Ethics comes from the Greek term ethos, which refers to “custom” or “usage” or “character”. Ethics has to do with systematic study of general principles of right and wrong behavior. Defining ethics Ethics involves judgments about the rightness or wrongness of human behavior. Ethics is concerned with how we should live our lives. It focuses on questions about what is right or wrong, fair or unfair, caring or uncaring, good or bad, responsible or irresponsible, and the like. Ethics deals with individual character and with the moral rules that govern and limit our conduct. It investigates questions of right and wrong, fairness and unfairness, good and bad, duty and obligation, and justice and injustice, as well as moral responsibility and the values that should guide our actions. Ethics comprises] the principles, norms, and standards of conduct governing an individual or group. Ethical judgments focus … on degrees of rightness and wrongness, virtue and vice, and obligation in human behavior. Ethics guide us in identifying right from wrong, good from bad, and just from unjust. Ethics basically refers to issues of right, wrong, fairness, and justice. An ethical act or decision is something judged as proper or acceptable based on some standard of right and wrong. Ethical perspectives are tools that help us identify and define problems, force us to think systematically, encourage us to view issues from many different vantage points, and provide us with decision making guidelines ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES Different ethical perspective has its weaknesses, but each makes a valuable contribution to ethical decision making. Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number Utilitarianism is based on the premise that our ethical choices, like other types of decisions, should be based on their outcomes. The goal is to maximize the good effects or outcomes of decisions. English philosophers and reformers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (18061873) believed that the best decisions generate the most benefits relative to their disadvantages and benefit the largest number of people. Utilitarians consider both short- and long-term consequences when making ethical determinations. If the immediate benefits of a decision don’t outweigh its possible future costs, this alternative is rejected. Due to the difficulty of identifying and evaluating potential costs and benefits, utilitarian decision makers may reach different conclusions when faced with the same dilemma, as in the case of motorcycle helmet laws or facial recognition technology. Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Do What’s Right Despite the Consequences German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) developed a simple set of rules that could be applied to every type of ethical decision. Kant argued that moral duties or imperatives are categorical- they should be obeyed without exception. Individuals should do what is morally right no matter what the consequences are. According to Kant, what is right for one is right for all. There is the emphasis on duty builds moral courage. Those driven by the conviction that certain behaviors are either right or wrong no matter the situation are more likely to resist group pressure to compromise personal ethical standards to follow through on their choices. However conflicting duties also pose a challenge to this type of thinking. For example, we should be loyal both to our bosses and to our coworkers. Yet being loyal to a supervisor may mean breaking loyalty with peers, such as when a supervisor asks us to reveal the source of a compliant. Rawls’s Justice as Fairness: Balancing Freedom and Equality During the 20th century, Harvard philosopher John Rawls looks at basing decisions on cost benefit ratios; he developed a set of guidelines for justly resolving distribution of resources Rawls argued that we should follow two principles of justice 1) each person has an equal right to the same basic liberties that are compatible with similar liberties for all. 2) social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions (a) they are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity, and (b) they are to be the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society. Rawls offered only broad guidelines, which can be interpreted in a number of different ways. Definitions of justice and fairness vary widely. What seems fair to one group or individual often appears unjust to others. Aristolelain Ethics: Live Well Aristotle (384-322 BCE) one of the most influential thinkers in history. Aristotle contends that we will make ethical decisions if we develop character traits or virtues. These virtues are both intellectual (prudence and wisdom that give us insight) and moral (courage, generosity, justice). To make ethical determinations, virtuous people find the mean or middle ground between the extremes of too little and too much in a given context, which some refer to as the “Golden Mean.” For instance, the entrepreneur who refuses to invest in any project, fearing loss is cowardly. But the overly optimistic entrepreneur who ignores risks is foolish. The courageous entrepreneur recognizes the risks but the invests when appropriate. Aristotle admits that finding this balance is difficult. Confucianism: Building Healthy Relationships Confucius (551-479 BCE) was born into a turbulent period of Chinese history where the ruling Zhou dynasty collapsed into competing states. Confucius wanted to restore order and good government. Confucius apparently served a brief period as a government minister but spent most of his life working outside the political system. Confucius believed that the ideal society is based on a series of harmonious, hierarchical relationships (starting in the family and extending all the way up to the pinnacle of government) marked by trust and mutual concern. Ideal citizens are individuals of high character who engage in lifelong learning and always strive to improve their ethical performance. Confucius argued that humans don’t exist in isolation but are social creatures connected to others through networks of relationships. Because organizations consist of webs of relationships, it is critical that these connections be based on trust and benefit all parties. Confucianism highlights the fundamental truth that organizations, economies, and societies are built on relationships. However, placing too much importance on relationships can undermine justice and fairness. For example, jobs and promotions going to family members, social connections leading to bribes, corruption. Altruism: Concern for Others Altruism is based on the principle that we should help others regardless of whether or not we profit from doing so. Altruistic behavior seeks to benefit the other person, not the self. Altruism often calls for selfsacrificial behavior, being the Good Samaritan. Western thought has been influenced by the altruistic emphasis of Judaism and Christianity. The command to love God and to love others as we love ourselves is the most important obligation in Judeo-Christian ethics. Altruism lays the foundation for high moral character. Many personal virtues, like compassion, generosity, and empathy reflect concern for other people. However, well intended attempts to help others can backfire. For example, a large proportion of money donated to some charities pay for fund raising expenses rather than for client services. Government can create dependence by providing welfare assistance. Moral is derived from the Latin mos or moris, which refers to “conduct” or “way of life” MORALS Morality and morals on the other hand, describe specific, culturally transmitted standards of right or wrong such as (thou shalt no steal). In order to think and act ethically, it’s important to expand your capacities for moral maturation and moral conation. Let take a look closer at each of these concepts. MORAL MATURATION Moral maturation capacity drives ethical thinking and involves the ability to elaborate and effectively store, retrieve, process and make meaning of morally relevant information. Moral maturation compose of 3 aspects: 1. moral complexity 2. metacognitive ability 3. moral identity 1. Moral Complexity moral complexity: knowledge of a specific domain of ethics (i.e., accounting ethics or medical ethics), which allows for in-depth processing; developing categories to discriminate among types of information; ability to see commonalities and connections in ethical situations; creating prototypes to use in processing ethical problems; knowing what not to do; sensitivity to moral cues; understanding of the morality of a culture or social group. 2. Metacognitive ability metacognitive ability: monitoring and regulating thinking; capacity to reason and solve problems; applying knowledge to specific moral dilemmas; assessing what information to use and its accuracy (i.e., considering all aspects of an ethical dilemma). 3. Moral identity moral identity: knowledge of self as a moral actor; regulating behavior according to beliefs, values, goals, and social roles; applying the moral self to a variety of situations. MORAL CONATION Moral conation capacity describes taking responsibility and then being motivated to do the right thing even when faced with adversity. Moral conation consist of 3 aspects: 1. moral ownership 2. moral efficacy 3. moral courage 3 Aspects of Moral Conation 1. Moral ownership: feeling a sense of responsibility for one’s own ethical actions, the ethical behavior of others, and the moral behavior of the organization, group, or society; seeking to do good while refusing to ignore unethical behavior. 2. Moral efficacy: belief in one’s ability to take ethical action and to persist when faced with challenges; confidence to perform in a given ethical situation; availability of outside support for moral behavior (like whistle blower protections, peer support. 3. Moral courage: willingness to face danger; strength of will to overcome ethical challenges and barriers; maintaining personal principles in the face of outside pressures. Moral psychologist James Rest was an American psychologist specializing in moral psychology was a professor at the University of Minnesota from 19701994. FOUR ELEMENTS OF MORAL BEHAVIOR James Rest developed the fourcomponent model by asking “What must happen psychologically in order for moral behavior to take place?” The four-components compromise of 1) moral sensitivity (recognition) 2) moral judgment or reasoning 3) moral motivation 4) moral character 1) Moral Sensitivity Moral sensitivity is the recognition that an ethical problem exists. Such recognition requires us to be aware of how our behavior impacts others, to identify possible courses of action, and to determine the consequences of each potential strategy. Moral sensitivity is key to practicing individual ethics. We can’t solve a moral dilemma unless we know that one is present. For that reason, raising ethical awareness is a goal of many ethics courses and programs. Moral attentiveness plays an important role in the recognition of ethical issues. Moral attentiveness is the predisposition to note the ethical dimension of experiences and events. This trait consists of two components: (1) perceptual moral attentiveness (the tendency to notice morality in everyday life), and (2) reflective moral attentiveness (routinely considering ethics when making choices).2 Those high in moral attentiveness are more aware of the ethical implications of specific situations, such as conflicts of interest and injustice, and are more likely to analyze them using an ethical framework. 2) Moral Judgment Psychologist James Rest was a student of Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. Each stage is more advanced than the one before. As individuals develop, their reasoning becomes more sophisticated. They become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality. Preconventional thinking is the most primitive level and is common among children as well as those suffering from damage to emotional regions of the brain. Individuals at Level I decide on the basis of direct consequences. In the first stage, they obey to avoid punishment. In the second, they follow the rules in order to meet their own interests. Stage 2 thinkers believe that justice is giving a fair deal to others: You help me and I’ll help you. Moral Judgment continued Conventional (Level II) thinkers look to other people for guidance for their actions. They strive to live up to the expectations of family members and significant others (Stage 3) or recognize the importance of going along with the laws of society (Stage 4). Kohlberg found that most adults fall into Stages 3 and 4, which suggests that the typical organizational member looks to work rules, leaders, and the situation to determine right from wrong. Postconventional or principled (Level III) thinking is the most advanced type of reasoning and relies on universal values and principles. Stage 5 individuals are guided by utilitarian principles, seeking to do the greatest good for the greatest number. They recognize that there are a number of value systems within a democratic society and that regulations may have to be broken to serve higher moral purposes. Stage 6 thinkers operate according to internalized, universal ethical principles like the categorical imperative or justice as fairness. These principles apply in every situation and take precedence over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, only about 20% of Americans can be classified as Stage 5 postconventional moral thinkers. Very few individuals ever reach Stage 6. 3. Moral Motivation After reaching a conclusion about the best course of action, decision makers must be motivated to follow through on their choices. Moral values often conflict with other important values like job security, career advancement, social acceptance, and wealth. Ethical behavior will result only if moral considerations take precedence over competing priorities. Moral hypocrisy demonstrates how competing values can overcome our commitment to doing the right thing. In moral hypocrisy, individuals and groups want to appear moral but don’t want to pay the price for actually behaving morally. Self-interest overwhelms their self-integrity. Presentation Title Moral motivation continued For example, participants in experimental settings say that dividing pleasant tasks or lottery tickets equally with a partner is the moral course of action. However, when they believe that their partners will never find out, subjects assign themselves the majority of pleasant tasks and tickets, in violation of their moral standard. The same pattern is repeated in real-life settings. Sellers often use privileged information to take advantage of purchasers. They might hide the fact that the house they are selling floods in heavy rains or sits in the path of a proposed highway. Companies may use public relations campaigns and marketing to maintain their ethical reputations while continuing to engage in unethical activities. Tobacco giant Philip Morris provides one example of corporate moral hypocrisy in action. The firm spent much more money publicizing its charitable contributions ($108 million) than it did on the charitable contributions themselves ($60 million). People are more likely to engage in moral hypocrisy when there is a high cost for behaving ethically, when they can disguise their actions, when they are in a powerful position, and when they can easily justify their inconsistent behavior by claiming that they are acting out of selfdefense or are serving the greater good. Presentation Title 4. Moral Character Carrying out the fourth and final stage of moral action—executing the plan—requires character. Moral agents must overcome active opposition, cope with fatigue, resist distractions, and develop sophisticated strategies for reaching their goals. In sum, they must persist in a moral task or action despite obstacles. Persistence can be nurtured like other positive character traits but it is also related to individual differences. Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. Individuals with an internal locus of control. Internally oriented people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people (externals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the product of luck or fate. Because internals take personal responsibility for their actions, they are motivated to do what is right. Externals are more susceptible to situational pressures. As a consequence, they are less likely to persist in ethical task Your values encompasses what is important to you in how you live your life. ROLE OF PERSONAL VALUES IN ETHICAL DECISIONS When we live by what we value, we have content and a sense of satisfaction. When our personal values do not align with how we live, we feel discord like something is wrong. Our lives are guided by our personal values. It guides us in our ethical decisions and what we decide to do. Role of personal values in the workplace Your personal values are molded from your upbringing. As you enter different stages in your life, they can evolve. Just like your personal goals. Values drive a good deal of our decision making and behavior on the job, including how hard we work, how we treat coworkers and subordinates, how we evaluate performance, and such. Presentation Title For instance, those who put a high value on responsibility are rarely late to work and may show up even when they are sick. DEFINING YOUR PERSONAL VALUES Those who place more value on enjoying life may skip work to go skiing or to the beach. We also use our values as standards to determine right from wrong and to set our priorities. Important to take steps to define your personal values Common Personal Values Acceptance Accountability Achievement Advancement Adventure Advocacy Ambition Appreciation Attractiveness Autonomy Balance Belonging Benevolence Boldness Brilliance Challenge Charity Cheerfulness Cleverness Community Commitment Compassion Competitiveness Consistency Contribution Cooperation Courage Courtesy Creativity Credibility Curiosity Decisiveness Dedication Dependability Determination Diligence Discipline Diversity Duty Dynamism Effectiveness Efficiency Elegance Empathy Encouragement Enjoyment Enthusiasm Equality Excellence Excitement Exploration Fairness Family Fitness Friendships Flexibility Freedom Fun Generosity Grace Growth Happiness Health Honesty Honor Humility Humor Inclusiveness Independence Individuality Innovation Insightfulness Inspiration Integrity Intelligence Joy Justice Kindness Leadership Learning Legacy Love Loyalty Mastery Merit Optimism Openness Order Originality Passion Patriotism Peace Perfection Piety Popularity Positivity Power Practicality Professionalism Punctuality Quality Recognition Reliability Resilience Resourcefulness Respect Responsibility Security Self control Selflessness Sensitivity Spirituality Stability Strength Structure Success Teamwork Thankfulness Thoughtfulness Tolerance Traditionalism Trustworthiness Understanding Uniqueness Unity Usefulness Versatility Vision Warmth Wealth Wisdom Zeal REFERENCES Johnson, Craig E. (2020) Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 5th Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. What Are Your Values? Deciding What’s Important in Life.(2023) https://www.mindtools.com/a5eygum/what-areyour-values 30