WEEK 1: Politics and Governance PDF

WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION A. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS “Politics exists because people disagree about the aims and objects of human endeavor and, probably even more so, about the methods to be used in achieving them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book, The Nat...

WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION A. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS “Politics exists because people disagree about the aims and objects of human endeavor and, probably even more so, about the methods to be used in achieving them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book, The Nature of Politics and Government. Introduction to British Government, Richards cited that human beings differ enormously in temperament, in what they want from life and in their reactions to the numerous problems that they have to cope with. These differences produce different attitudes to public issues and lead to the activity of politics. Politics therefore involves conflict. This can result in violence, as in many of the developing countries, but in the Western democracies the differences are usually resolved peacefully. Richards opined that “A disagreement in which incompatible policies are advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side obtaining the power to make its viewpoint prevail over the other. The acquisition of power therefore is a prerequisite of achieving political objectives.” Thus, is the nature of politics. DEFINITIONS OF POLITICS The term “politics” is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all human group interactions. It consists of social relations involving authority or power, the regulation of political units, and the methods used to formulate and apply social policy. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/politics-power-and-authority/ Politics is the way in which we understand and order our social affairs, and acquire greater control over the situation. (B. Pomton and P. Gill, Politics, Introduction. (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1982, p.6.) Tuibeo, (1998) defined Politics as the strategy for maintaining cooperation among people with different needs and ideals in life, or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-state. (Amable G. Tuibeo, “Politics and Governance: A Critical Introduction (Makati: Grandwater Publication, 1998), p.1. Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936) author of a major study of the distributive consequences of political activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets What, When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics" as involving questions as to "who gets what, when, and how." Politics, according to Lasswell, is concerned with determination, by official governmental decision making and action, of: 1. Who in political society receives what benefits, rewards, and advantages and how much of them they receive, 2. when they receive the benefits, rewards, and advantages, and 3. the methods by which they receive them. B. THE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL SCIENCE Political science is a classical discipline that deals with the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to deepen human understanding of the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for interpreting politically meaningful phenomena. Political science focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at the local, state, national, and international levels. (Political Science Department, University of Washington, (2021) https://www.polisci.washington.edu/ Political Science deals with the systematic study of political structures, political processes and political behavior. Sartori, G. (1969) pointed out in his book From the Sociology of Politics to Political Sociology, “Political approaches and research methods are largely decided by the kind of evidence which is available for the units, and the kind of problems with which one deals." In using the term "approach" we mean a particular orientation or point of view in looking at and interpreting the world of politics. 1. The Traditional Approach Traditional approach to the study of political science is a combination of views on and orientations to politics in philosophical, ethical and institutional terms. Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, the great issues of politics have revolved around the organization and functioning of the state- the political institution par excellence. Traditional approaches exhibit certain well-defined features, such as: (a) are largely normative and stresses on the values of politics, (b) emphasize on the study of different political structures and institutions, The traditional approach has various forms:  a) Philosophical-This approach firmly believes that values cannot be separated from the study of politics and political system. Therefore, its main concern is to judge what is good or bad in any political society. b) Historical-As the name of this approach is related to history, it emphasizes on the study of history of every political reality to analyze any situation. c) Institutional-This approach is concerned with the study of formal structures and institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, etc. d) Legal- This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies or institutions, justice and independence of judiciary. 2. The Behavioral Approach The behavioral approach to political science mainly emphasizes on scientific, objective and value free study of political phenomenon. This approach stresses upon the use of empirical as well as scientific methods of study political behavior. This approach shifts its emphasis from the study of the state and government to the day-today problems, activities and behavior of individuals and groups. The Behavioral Approach has the following characteristics: a) Regularities -believes that there are certain uniformities in political behavior which can be expressed in generalizations or theories in order to explain and predict political phenomena. b) Verification -emphasizes testing and verifying everything. According to the behaviorists, what cannot be verified is not scientific. c) Techniques -put emphasis on the use of those research tools and methods which generate valid, reliable and comparative data. d) Quantification -After collecting data, the researcher should measure and quantify those data. e) Values -believe that to do objective research one has to be value free. f) Systematization -research in Political Science must be systematic. Theory and research should go together. g) Pure Science -believes that the study of Political Science should be verified by evidence. h) Integration -Political Science should not be separated from various other social sciences like history, sociology and economics, etc. C. IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT The Centre Daily Times, a daily newspaper located in State College, Pennsylvania in the United States, held an opinion survey (2016) on The Importance of Politics and gathered several responses. Alexis Mortensen, made the most incisive and meaningful response. Here is the transcript of her answer to the survey question: It is very important to care about politics because you should know what is going on around you. Also, it is important to have a say in what is going on around you. The political decisions people make will affect many lives. Many people see politics as the government and the laws being made, and that is true, but it is way more complicated than that. Every law that is made will impact many. Sometimes the decisions will affect people in a bad way. Every vote that you make will either break people or make people. One reason you should care about politics is because you should always know what is going on around you. For example, if a new law is made is made in your area, you might want to make sure that you and the people around you know that a new law has been made so that no one breaks the law without even knowing it. Also, if something dangerous is happening around you or someone you know, you want to be aware if someone is breaking the law. It is very important to know what is happening around you. Another reason you should care about politics is because you should have a say in what will happen. Everyone should have a say in what will happen, because we all live side by side with each other, and it would not be fair if someone was left out. Also, each vote makes a difference in the ways that we live. It is always important to share your opinion. The way you vote will affect many people, and their everyday life. Finally, you should care about politics because the decisions people make will affect many lives. For example, if someone wanted to build on land, it might be good for the people who worked in the area, but residents who lived nearby and loved the land and relied on the land for water and food, might be devastated. Sometimes things that sound like good ideas might be very devastating later. These are just a few reasons why you should care about politics. Politics are very important and very complicated. Some people might not care about politics, but when something bad happens, they will regret not voting. In 2018, the Quora, an American question-and-answer website where questions are asked, answered, followed, and edited by Internet users, either factually or in the form of opinions, asked the question Why Are Politics Important in This Society? The most notable answer was given by a certain Vaibhav Narula, Autodidact Philosopher. (August 15, 2018) Because politics affects our daily life more than we know. Politics is the science of optimum allocation of resources for the betterment of everyone. It requires great understanding and skills. Common man too needs to have a basic grasp of politics specially in a democracy - which is essentially a system of check and balances. A democracy is not run by the government alone but by both the citizens and the government. A society that is politically aware is a society that cares about its people’s well-being. As best put in the words of Bertolt Brecht: “The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he doesn’t hear, doesn’t speak, nor participates in the political events. He doesn’t know the cost of life, the price of the bean, of the fish, of the flour, of the rent, of the shoes and of the medicine, all depends on political decisions. The political illiterate is so stupid that he is proud and swells his chest saying that he hates politics. The imbecile doesn’t know that, from his political ignorance is born the prostitute, the abandoned child, and the worst thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and flunky of the national and multinational companies.” D. MEANING OF GOVERNANCE The World Bank defines governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources for development.... Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality). Etymology of Governance The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling, a group of people or a state. Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of governance. Just as politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the ideals of justice, governance also deals with the public sector, power structures, equity, and ideals of public administration. Nevertheless, they are distinct from each other in the sense that politics is broader than governance. Traditionally, the study of politics entails the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal society,” which are so broad they include a web of subjects and every possible form of government. The study of governance, on the contrary, is generally attuned to the concept of democracy, and on how the government and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their needs. Definition of Governance Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society wield power, and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect human and institutional interactions, and economic and social development. The power exercised by the participating sectors of the society is always for the common good, as it is essential for demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such, a great deal about governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources. E. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE There are Eight Indicators of Good Governance Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1) Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus-Oriented; and (8) Accountability. They are inextricably related to each other. For instance, without active participation among the various actors in governance, there would be a concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making is not transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and decisions are not consensus oriented. These indicators should, however, be understood in the context of good “democratic” governance. Some of the indicators cannot be applied in other forms of government. For example, good communist governance could never be consensus oriented or genuinely participatory. It must also be emphasized that good governance and development should not be based exclusively on economic growth. Through global persuasion, good governance and development signify a broader spectrum of things, such as protection of human rights, equitable distribution of wealth, enhancement of individual capabilities and creation of an enabling environment to foster participation and growth of human potentials. As it evolved today, sustainable development necessitates “people empowerment” and “respect for human rights.” After all, economic prosperity or the minimization of poverty and unemployment depends on how the state unleashes the full potential of its human resource by recognizing their vital roles and according full respect for human rights. 1. Participation Good governance essentially requires participation of different sectors of the society. Participation means active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling environment wherein pertinent information is effectively disseminated and people could respond in an unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means gender equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and women in decision-making. More fundamentally, the need for participation is a recognition of the limits of a “verticalized system” of governance. A verticalized system, or the top-down approach, refers to a state or government monopoly both of powers and responsibilities. While the government is still the most potent actor in the process of governance, the participation of other sectors is already a necessity because of the always evolving complexity and ever growing needs of the societies, especially in the financial sphere. What should now be utilized is the so-called “horizontal system” where the government works hand in hand with other sectors of the society. The different sectors are considered partners of the government in attaining development goals. Governance should no longer be government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation. Participation in representative democracies may either be direct or indirect, and recommendatory or actual. It could be indirect and recommendatory because in principle the form of government is based on delegation of powers. In the Philippines, which possesses features of both direct and indirect democracy, indirect participation is done through public consultations or hearings, while direct participation is through elections, initiatives and referendums. The management of highly complex societies and of their ever-growing needs requires a participatory form of governance by diffusing power. The move for decentralization is a response to this as it widens the base of participation and allows local government units to exercise governmental powers directly within their respective districts. Service delivery is enhanced because of the proximity of local government units to their constituents, and because of the linking which happens between the national government and regional concerns. Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine Constitution is replete of provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral governance. The Local Government Act of 1989 was borne out of the need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As such, these and other related legislations may be considered as normative standards for good governance. 2. Rule of Law Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law that people express their will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle which puts no one, however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the government can arbitrarily act in contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the people and the civil society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that the government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. The absence of rule of law is anarchy. Anarchy happens when people act in utter disregard of law and when the government act whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace and order,” “absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,” “observance and protection of human rights,” and “clear, publicized, and stable laws.” What the law seeks to promote is justice. When there is dearth of legislation for curbing social evils, or even if there is, but the same is ineffectual or unresponsive, and when there is no faithful execution of the law, then justice is not attained. When the justice system is biased and discriminatory, when it favors the rich and the influential over the poor and lowly, or when the legal processes are long, arduous, unavailable or full of delays, then justice is not attained. Then when the actors of governance can minimize, if not eliminate, these injustices, then there is said to be rule of law. Rule of law also requires that laws are responsive to the needs of the society. Archaic or irrelevant laws must be amended or repealed to cater to modern demands. The Philippines does not fare well in this aspect of good governance. In spite of being one of the oldest democracies in the region, the Philippines ranked as last among seven indexed Asian countries according to the World Justice Project Rule of Law Index. Generally, the reasons for ranking last are “lack of respect for law,” “pervasive and systemic corruption in the government,” and “circumvention of the law.” Lack of respect for law is generally caused by distrust on the integrity of law enforcement agencies. Order and security are compromised and criminal justice is rendered ineffectual. Systemic corruption has long been a problem in the Philippines that like a malignant tumor it keeps on sucking the life out of the country. Allegedly, it is the key officials in the government who direct the perpetration of this crime. What became clear from a long string of corruption and plunder cases is the true motive of many aspiring politicians – money. The huge amount of money spent during election campaigns are but mere investments for a more profitable return during their term in office. In addition, the justice system is flooded by legal practitioners who are experts at circumventing the law. Circumvention happens when there is compliance with the letter of the law but violation of its spirit and purpose. Due to technicalities, for instance, highly paid lawyers can find ways for their rich and powerful clients to evade the law. Although apparently there is observance of law, it is only superficial as the real end of the law is forfeited. As such, there is a concomitant violation of fundamental rights of the people and ineffective administration of justice. Nevertheless, the Philippines has exerted efforts in promoting the rule of law. The series of cases filed against high-ranking officials, previous Presidents, members of the judiciary, and high-profile persons for graft and corrupt practices prove one thing clearly: the honest drive of the current administration to clean the government from corrupt traditional politicians. In addition, legislations were made to hasten the legal process. The “Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 2004” (R.A. 9285), for instance, seeks to unclog the court dockets by promoting a speedy, efficient, and less expensive resolution of disputes. The “Judicial Affidavit Rule” issued by the Supreme Court in 2013 also lessened to a great extent the time and expenses of litigation. 3. Effectiveness and Efficiency Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors could deliver and meet the necessities of the society in a way that available resources are utilized well. That the different actors meet the needs of the society means that there is effective governance. That the valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or underutilizing any of them, means that there is efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and efficiency (proper utilization of resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for the community. Concretely, effectiveness and efficiency demand “enhancement and standardization of the quality of public service delivery consistent with international standards,” “professionalization of bureaucracy,” “focusing of government efforts on its vital functions, and elimination of redundancies or overlaps in functions and operations,” “a citizen-centered government,” and “an improved financial management system of the government.” Public service delivery, especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately cater the needs of the citizens. Doing so requires simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs. Cumbersome procedures and expensive costs trigger corruption and red tape. “Red Tape” refers to the disregard for timeframes in procedures by government agencies through procrastination in public service delivery or under-the-table or unofficial transactions. To further curb such possibilities, the government agencies must comply with their citizen’s charter and use up-to-date information and communications technology to reduce processing time. There must also be coordination among various government agencies to eliminate redundant information requirements. Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in civil service. Appointments to civil service must be depoliticized and must be based solely on merits. Effectiveness and efficiency also demand that the programs and objectives of the various government agencies are aligned with individual performance goals. The increases in compensation are likewise necessary for the economic well-being, sustained competence and boosted morale of the civil servants. Although still insufficient, efforts were made to attain effectiveness and efficiency in Philippine governance. The Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA), for instance, was passed to require the setting up of Citizen’s Charter for a simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental transactions. Also, many government departments and agencies pursued a rationalization program to check excessive and redundant staffing. 4. Transparency Transparency, as an indicator of good governance, means that people are open to information regarding decision-making process and the implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that information on matters of public concern is made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected. It also means that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible to the people. It is anchored on the democratic right to information and right to access of the same. Transparency is necessary not just from government transactions but also in those transactions of the civil society and private sector imbued with public interests. The reason why there should be transparency is to promote and protect democratic ideals. When there is transparency, people are placed in a better position to know and protect their rights as well as denounce corrupt or fraudulent practices in the public sector and in the private sector. Although again insufficient, efforts were made in pursuit of transparency in Philippine governance. As far as the government sector is concerned, the current administration, consistent with its drive of curbing corruption, promotes honesty and integrity in public service. It is currently pursuing the passage of the Freedom of Information Bill and other related legislations, as well as intensifying people’s engagement in local governance. Transparency in budget and disbursements are, however, still far from being substantially implemented. 5. Responsiveness Responsiveness means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a timely and appropriate manner. It also means that actors and structures of governance easily give genuine expression to the will or desire of the people. In other words, the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of governance. While responsiveness is also a characteristic sought from the private sector and civil society, more is demanded from the government or the public sector. Gender equality is engrained in the egalitarian principles of democracy. Gender concerns that respond to the women and their community must always be part of the agenda of public sector and civil society. Thus, emerging as important areas in the study of democratic governance are “Gender and Development” and “Gender Responsiveness.” The participation of women in governance within the context of “gendered socialization” rests on how responsive the structures and processes are to their roles and needs. Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive governance in the Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline agencies (as required by ARTA), and gender sensitivity programs. First, through decentralization, local governments, which are more proximate to their constituents, serve more promptly the people, who in turn become more involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency now has it Citizen’s Charter, which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline services. Agencies now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or interested parties within a period of ten days, otherwise there will be delayed service. However, this aspect of governance still remains to be one of the causes for the decline of public’s confidence in the public sector. Although the ARTA has been passed, there is still so much delay in public service delivery. The failure of the government agencies to explain the charters to the stakeholders is one of the main reasons why there is still delay. 6. Equity and Inclusiveness Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone has a stake in the society and no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those who belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. Social equity refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate members of the society. It is based on the principle that those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the actors must give preferential attention to the plight of the poor. Laws must be geared towards this end and the society must actively participate in the promotion of the same. The Philippine Government has done extensive efforts in promoting equity and inclusiveness. The Constitution makes it as one of its state policies the promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the Congress, under the party list system, is constitutionally mandated to have sectoral representation of the underprivileged. Gender and Development programs are in the process of being integrated with the various structures and institutions in the country. But legislation is one thing; implementation is another. It is in the faithful implementation of these laws that the country failed. Inequality is especially felt in the justice system, electoral system, and even in the bureaucracy itself. 7. Consensus-Oriented Governance is consensus-oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of the society. Mechanisms for conflict resolution must be in place because inevitably conflict that will arise from competing interests of the actors. To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation structure must be established. Without such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be reached that serves that best interest of the whole community. Fundamentally, democratic governance is based on the partnership of the actors of the society in providing public services. Decisions-making must therefore entail recognition of their respective interests as well as their respective duties. The essential of governance could never be expressed in a unilateral act of policy making by the public sector or other dominant sectors. Public hearings or consultations in arriving at a consensus are therefore inherently necessary in the process of governance. Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting a consensus-oriented governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of representation in the Congress; (2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subjects legislation to the evaluation of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or consultations of various governmental policies and actions. 8. Accountability Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s action. It is based on the principle that every person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect public interest. The actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves. Accountability comes in various forms: political, hierarchical, and managerial accountability. Political accountability refers to the accountability of public officials to the people they represent. Hierarchical accountability refers to the ordered accountability of the various agencies and their respective officers and personnel in relation to their program objectives. Managerial accountability refers to employee accountability based on organization and individual performance. A system of rewards and punishment must be in place to strengthen the processes and institutions of governance. The Philippines in the recent years had endeavored to comply with the requirements of accountability. It had put in action the concept of political accountability as it held answerable erring public officials involved in graft and corruption and for acts contrary to the mandate of the constitution. It had also strengthened parliamentary scrutiny through legislative investigations and creation of special committees exercising oversight functions. The Office of the Ombudsman, considered as the public watchdog, has become ever so active in investigating and prosecuting graft and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as required by ARTA, was also an important tool in promoting professional public service values. In this area, Philippine governance has done relatively well.