Communication Skills Course Pack - W23 - Lahore School of Economics PDF

Reading Package for Communication Skills (SSC 201) Winter 2023 Lahore School of Economics BLANK PAGE  COURSE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS (SSC 201) SYLLABUS I. Communication Skills : An overview I...

Reading Package for Communication Skills (SSC 201) Winter 2023 Lahore School of Economics BLANK PAGE  COURSE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS (SSC 201) SYLLABUS I. Communication Skills : An overview II. Significance and Role of Communication Skills III. Communication: Mechanics & Classification IV. Oral & Written Communication V. Developing & Organizing Ideas VI. Effective Listening & Speaking VII. Argumentation & Persuasion VIII. Critical Argument Analysis IX. Précis Writing X. Making Presentations Core Reading List: 1. Kathleen S. Verderber, Deanna D. Sellnow, and Rudolph F. Verderber (2017) Communicate! [15th edition] Cengage Learning. 2. Kirszner, L. G., Mandell, S. R. (2014). Patterns for College Writing: A Rhetorical Reader and Guide. Bedford/St. Martin's 3. Lunsford, A. A., & Ruszkiewicz, J. J. (2022). Everything's an argument. [9th Edition]. Bedford/St. Martin’s 4. Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. [4th Edition], Pearson Longman. 5. Wood, J. T (2016). Communication in our Lives [8th Edition]. Cengage Learning.  COURSE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS (201) Course Objectives:  Appreciate the significance of communication  Understand the process of communication  Critically read a text and evaluate arguments  Develop thesis statements  Employ effective interpersonal skills  Organize information in a coherent manner  Engage in effective business communication  Make oral presentations Teaching Strategy: Some of the instructional strategies are Lectures, independent reading, independent learning, discussions, information gap, information transfer, brainstorming, mind and concept maps, jigsaw/expert groups, group investigation, simulation, debates/creative controversies, presentations, problem solving, critical reading response journals, free writing, quizzes, classroom assignments, and portfolios. Final Assessment Criteria: Class Participation 05% Quizzes/Mini Assignments 15% Extempore Speeches 5% Mock Trial 5% End-term Essay 5% Presentations 10% Mid-Term Examination 20% Final Examination 35% Attendance Policy If a student is absent for more than 8 classes in the course, then they will be dropped from the course and given an I (incomplete) grade. Examination Policy No make-up exam will be given except for medical emergencies. The controller of examinations must determine that a valid excuse has been accepted. If a mid-term is missed with a valid excuse, the make- up will be given with the final exam. Unexcused missed mid-terms will receive a grade of zero. Students who miss the final will have to take it the following year (i.e., the next time the course is offered). In case of a final exam retake , there will be a deduction of 20% from the student’s acquired final exam scores. Students without a valid excuse for the missed final exam will have to re-take the course. Policy on Plagiarism/Cheating The plagiarism in group project/presentations/individual assignments or cheating during exam will result in a 0 on the respective task. The students must note that plagiarism includes the submission/presentation of a report/article that has been previously used for another course (even by the same author) or another student. Lahore School of Economics Plagiarism Policy Lahore School adheres strictly to HEC plagiarism policies which are available on the HEC website and Lahore School handbook on plagiarism policy. The policy can be found at http://hec.gov.pk/english/services/faculty/Documents/Plagiarism/Plagiarism%20Policy.pdf The Lahore School Regulations on Student Code of Behavior specifies penalties for plagiarism in reports, research papers and presentations in courses taken and in articles published while studying at the Lahore School. Learning Outcomes  Understand the process of communication and the requirements of a formal versus informal interaction  Develop confidence in facing an audience and presenting their arguments effectively, especially while making oral presentations  Read a text critically and evaluate the arguments made along with identifying elements that weaken an argument.  Appreciate the concept of working in teams and the ways of achieving effective interpersonal skills and harmonious relationships.  Cultivate the understanding of creating a focused thesis, generating strong support, and organizing substantiating details in a coherent manner for all written and oral communication tasks while being conscious of the importance of precision.  COURSE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS (201) Session Topics Discussion Sessions 1. Communication Skills: An Overview of course Overview 2. The process of communication Communication Models Communication barriers: Oral, Written, and ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) 3. Mechanics of communication Exploring the Rhetorical Stance for Oral & Written Communication 7Cs of Communication 4. Active Listening Exercises 5. Reading Strategies Exercises 6. Non-Verbal Communication Quiz 7. Developing Ideas Brain Storming Narrowing down Creating an outline Introducing topic sentence, structure and types of paragraphs 8. Effective Public Speaking Analyzing speeches 9. Public Speaking Spontaneous speaking (Activity) 10. Paragraph writing Developing supporting ideas in a paragraph 11. Organization Achieving cohesion and coherence 12. Précis Exercises 13. Argumentation & Persuasion I Aristotlean persuasion strategies (Logos, ethos, pathos) Toulmin’s argument 14. Argumentation & Persuasion II Logical Fallacies 15. Mid term exam Mid term exam 16. Interpersonal Communication Johari window (Activity) Communication in groups 17. Extempore Speeches Activity 18. Extempore Speeches Activity 19. Developing Power Point Developing and organizing ideas in power point Presentations presentations Audience analysis (Speaking situation and demographics) 20. Reading Critically: Critical Writing a Critique Argument Analysis 21. Essay Wriitng Developing Thesis Statements Outlines for Essays 22. Visual Communication Critically analyzing Visual Content (Web content analysis) 23. Visual Communication II Composing an essay on a visual prompt 24. Presentations 25. Presentations 26. Presentations 27. Critical Essay End term critical essay 28. Mock Trial Activity 29. Mock Trial Activity 30. Final Examination  Table of Content Sr# Chapter Title Page No. 1. Foundations of Communication 8 2. Models of Communication 28 3. 7Cs of Communication 32 4. Reading Basics 34 5. Listening Effectively 47 6. Nonverbal messages 67 7. Persuasive Speaking 86 8. Presenting Arguments 119 9. Writing a Paragraph 151 10. Unity and Coherence 167 11. Argumentation 188 12. Toulmin Argument 211 13. Communication in Groups and Teams 250 14. Stages of Group Formation and Development 270 15. Johari Window 273 16. Writing an analysis of an argument 276 17. Analysing Visuals 295 Sample Readings I. Why we crave horror movies by Stephen King 310 II. Only daughter by Sandra Cisneros 314 III. Why is compromise now a dirty word? by Deborah Tannen 316 IV. It’s not about you by David Brooks 319 V. Understanding Brooks’s binaries by Rachel Kolb (Sample Critique) 322 VI. We need more humanities majors by Christian Madsbjerg and Mikkel B. 325 Rasmussen VII. Hunger and loneliness: My muses by Mo Yan 332 VIII. Is Google Making Us Stupid? by Nicholas Carr 336 IX. Inside the Secretive, Semi-Illicit, High Stakes World of WhatsApp Mango 345 Importing by Ahmed Ali Akbar X. Dangers of a single story by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (Transcript) 355 XI. Come September by Arundhati Roy (Transcript) 361 BLANK PAGE  Foundations of Communication   When you’ve finished this chapter, you will be able to: Describe the nature of communication. Assess messages using the principles of ethical communication. Define key components in the communication process. Develop a personal communication improvement plan. Explain the characteristics of communication. Jennifer was running late. She stood at the kitchen counter eating a piece of toast while preparing a grocery list she would use on her way home from work. She noticed that the Weather Channel was forecasting heavy rain and wondered where she left her umbrella. Start with a quick warm-up activity. She added “get umbrella” to her shopping list. Jennifer quickly texted Greta, a coworker she was driving with to work today, to ask if Greta had an extra one she could borrow. As she was texting Greta, Jennifer’s 16-year-old daughter, Hailey, bounded into the kitchen and asked, “Mom, can I get a tattoo? Kayla and Whitney are both getting them and we want to match.” “Not now, Hailey. I’m late for work. We can talk about it tonight.” “But mom....” “Yes, Hailey, yes, alright. We’ll talk more tonight....” Jennifer exclaimed as she headed to the door. Just then she heard her computer signal an incoming e-mail message. Jennifer thought, “I’d better just get going. I can check it on my phone on the way to pick up Greta.” As Hailey waited for the school bus, she quickly texted her friends, “Awesome! My mom said YES!” 2 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 8  1 Terry Vine/Getty Images Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 9  4 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication Can you relate to Jennifer? We live in an era when multitasking has become a norm. Part of that multitasking includes communicating both with ourselves and with others. Like Read, highlight, and take Jennifer, we get ready for work or school while checking voice messages and Facebook notes online. pages, answering texts and e-mails, as well as eating breakfast, monitoring the forecast, and getting dressed. Some argue that the same technology that was supposed to simplify life has actu- ally made it more complex. In fact, communication today extends across interpersonal, group, and public communication settings through flat print, face-to-face, and mediated technology-enhanced channels. Jennifer, for example, composed her grocery list on a piece of paper while learning about the weather forecast on television and texting Greta on her smart phone. Then, when Hailey tried to talk to her face to face, Jennifer was so distracted that her communication signals implied to Hailey that she had granted Hailey permission to get a tattoo. Unfortunately, one of the negative consequences of having so many modes through which we can communicate is the false sense of competence it gives us about our ability to have several conversations at once. This chapter and the ones that follow focus on why it’s important to improve our communication skills and how to do so. As a result, we can avoid the negative consequences of ineffective communication that can hurt our personal APPLY it and professional relationships. Consider a time when At its core, communication is the attempt to satisfy the innate human desire to share someone started reading our thoughts, feelings, and ideas with others. We do this through the messages we send or sending texts on their and receive every day. Messages are made up of a combination of verbal symbols (words), smart phone while you were nonverbal cues (behaviors), and visual images. talking to them. How did that influence your opinion New technologies provide new channels and new challenges for communicating. For of them? Of their interest in example, e-mailing, texting, tweeting, blogging, Skyping, and Facebooking are expanding you? Of the value they place our ability to communicate with distant others around the world. With these opportuni- on your relationship? ties, however, comes an intensified need to tailor our messages for the different channels we use and the different audiences those channels might address. What this book intends to help you learn, then, is how to communicate effectively (1) in various settings such as interpersonal encounters, small groups, and public forums, as well as (2) using a variety of channels ranging from flat print to face-to-face to technology-driven ones. Our ability to make and keep friends, to be good members of our families, to have Photo 1.1 What are your career goals? How might effective com- satisfying intimate relationships, to participate in or lead groups, and to prepare and munication help you achieve them? present formal speeches and presentations depends on our communication skills. Time and time again, surveys and studies conclude that employers of college graduates seek oral communication, teamwork, and interpersonal skills (College Learning for the New Global Century, 2008; Darling & Dannels, 2003; © monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com Hansen & Hansen, 2007; Hart, 2006; Young, 2003). Unfortunately, these same employers also say communication skills are the ones many new graduates lack (Hart, 2010). Thus, what you learn from this book can not only improve your personal relationships, but also increase your ability to get a job and be successful in your cho- sen career (Photo 1.1). Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 10  Chapter 1 | Foundations of Communication 5 We begin this chapter by describing the nature of communication and the com- munication process followed by several characteristics of communication and ethical considerations. Finally, we explain how to become a more competent communicator by developing and following your own personal communication improvement plan. The Nature of Communication Communication is a complex process through which we express, interpret, and coor- communication dinate messages with others. We do so to create shared meaning, to meet social goals, the process through which we express, interpret, and to manage personal identity, and to carry out our relationships. At its core, then, com- coordinate messages with munication is about messages. others Messages are the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal behaviors used to messages convey thoughts and feelings. We refer to the process of creating messages as encoding the verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal and the process of interpreting them as decoding. So when a toddler points to her bottle behaviors used to convey and cries out “Ba-ba,” her message (comprised of a nonverbal gesture—pointing—and a thoughts and feelings verbal utterance—“Ba-ba”) expresses her desire for her caregiver to give her the bottle of encoding milk. How the caregiver responds, however, depends on how he or she decodes the mes- the process of putting our sage. The caregiver might respond by handing her the bottle or by saying, “Sorry, cutie, thoughts and feelings into words and nonverbal behaviors the bottle is empty.” Either response is also a message. Feedback is a response message that indicates how the initial message was interpreted. decoding the process of interpreting another’s message Canned Plans and Scripts feedback responses to messages But how do we actually go about encoding (or forming) and decoding (or interpreting) messages? We begin based on our canned plans and scripts. A canned plan is a “mental canned plan a “mental library” of scripts library” of scripts each of us draws from to create messages based on what worked each of us draws from to create for us or others in the past (Berger, 1997). A script is an actual text of what to say messages based on what and do in a specific situation. We have canned plans and scripts for a wide variety worked in the past of interactions like greeting people, making small talk, giving advice, compliment- script ing or criticizing someone, and persuading others. Each canned plan may contain an actual text of what to say and do in a specific situation many scripts tailored to different people and occasions. For example, we may have a “canned greeting plan” that contains a different script for greeting a friend, family member, co-worker, or supervisor. It may also include tailored scripts for doing so in person, over e-mail, or on social media. Patricia, for example, typically begins e-mail messages to her friends by greeting them with their first name. However, when she writes to her professors, she always begins with “Dear Professor.” Doing so helps convey respect for their authority. Suppose you spot a good friend sitting at a table across the room from you at a res- APPLY IT taurant. How might you say hello? How might you tailor your greeting if that person is What do you say when a romantic partner, work supervisor, co-worker, or classmate? you greet (a) a stranger you pass on the sidewalk, We develop canned plans and scripts from our own previous experiences and by (b) a casual friend or class- observing what appears to work or not work for other people, even fictitious people we mate, (c) a romantic partner, see on TV or in movies (Frank, Prestin, Chen, & Nabi, 2009) (Photo 1.2). When our or (d) a family member? In canned plan doesn’t appear to include a good script for a specific situation, we search what ways are your scripts similar and different? Why? for scripts that are similar to the current situation and customize an appropriate message. For example, if you have never met a celebrity, you probably don’t have a greeting script for doing so in your canned plan mental library. Suppose you are waiting to board a plane and spot a famous athlete, singer, or actor also waiting to board. What would you say? Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 11  6 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication As you figure that out, you are likely to draw from similar scripts and customize them for the person and occasion. The point here is that we don’t usually start from scratch to form messages. Instead we recognize what type of message we want to form, search our mental canned plan library for an appropriate script, and then customize it to fit the unique parts of the current situation. All of this mental choosing typically happens in nanoseconds. We also use our canned plans and scripts to interpret AP Images/Rob Bennett messages from others. Obviously, the larger your canned plan library is, the more likely you will be to form appropriate and effective messages, as well as understand and respond appropriately to the messages of others. Photo 1.2 Sometimes we develop canned plans and scripts by observing fictional characters or people on TV. What television Communication Context programs might have influenced your canned plans and scripts? According to noted German philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the ideal communication Why and how? situation is impossible to achieve, but considering context as we communicate can move communication context us closer to that goal (Littlejohn & Foss, 2010). The communication context is made the physical, social, historical, up of the physical, social, historical, psychological, and cultural situations that surround psychological, and cultural situations that surround a a communication event. communication event The physical situation includes the location, the environmental conditions (tem- physical situation perature, lighting, noise level), and the physical proximity of participants to each other. location, environmental The physical situation may also be virtual as we interact with others via social media on conditions (temperature, lighting, noise level), distance our computers, tablets, and smart phones. The physical situation can influence how we between communicators, interpret the messages we send and receive. We are likely to be most successful when we seating arrangements, and time are present with those with whom we are interacting, either literally, as in face-to-face of day situations, or virtually. The term we use for creating a sense of “being there” with another social presence person virtually is social presence. One technology-enhanced communication channel a sense of “being there” with that does not lend itself to conveying social presence is e-mail. As a result, e-mail mes- another person virtually sages can often be misinterpreted, cause hurt feelings, or damage relationships. Jonas, for instance, gasped when he read the e-mail from his professor that seemed to be accusing him of cheating. He began to fire off a reply but stopped and made an appointment to speak in person so as to avoid the misinterpretation that can come from the lack of social presence provided via e-mail. social situation The social situation is the nature of the relationship that already exists between the the nature of the relationship participants. The better you know someone and the better relationship you have with that exists between participants them, the more likely you are to accurately interpret their messages and to give them the benefit of the doubt when a message seems negative. historical situation The historical situation is the background provided by previous communication the background provided by previous communication between the participants. For instance, suppose Chas texts Anna to tell her he will pick between the participants up the draft of the report they had left for their manager. When Anna sees Chas at lunch later that day, she says, “Did you get it?” Another person listening to the conversation would have no idea what the “it” is to which Anna is referring. Yet Chas may well Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 12  Chapter 1 | Foundations of Communication 7 reply, “It’s on my desk.” Anna and Chas understand one another because of their earlier exchange. The psychological situation includes the moods and feelings each person brings psychological situation the moods and feelings each to the encounter. For instance, suppose Corinne is under a great deal of stress. While person brings to a conversation studying for an exam, a friend stops by and asks her to take a break to go to the gym. Corinne, who is normally good-natured, may respond with an irritated tone of voice, which her friend may misinterpret as Corinne being mad at him. The cultural situation includes the beliefs, values, orientations, underlying cultural situation assumptions, and rituals that belong to a specific culture (Samovar, Porter, & McDan- the beliefs, values, orientations, underlying iel, 2009). Everyone is part of one or more cultural group (e.g., race, ethnicity, reli- assumptions, and rituals that gion, age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, physical ability). When two people from belong to a specific culture different cultures interact, misunderstandings may occur because of their different cultural values, beliefs, orientations, and rituals. The Communicating in the World sec- tion in this chapter describes how the cultural ritual of mourning is changing in the United States today. Mourning in the United States, Communicating 21st-Century Style in the World a commemorative Web page that memorializes the life of the departed. For example, an article in the Boston Globe recounted the story of Shawn Kelley, who created a “moving tribute” to his brother Michael, a National Guardsman killed in Afghanistan. The 60-second video features a slide show of images of Michael growing up while quiet classical music plays softly and a voice-over recounts Michael’s attributes and interests. Shawn reported that it made him feel good to be able to “talk” about his brother, and over www.legacy.com a year later he was still visiting the site to watch the video and to view the messages that continue to be left by family members and friends (Plumb, 2006). Mourning is a universal human communication pro- The popularity of such Web sites can be summarized cess of celebrating the life of someone while grieving in the fact that Legacy.com, the most popular site his or her death. Mourning rituals and traditions for posting online memorials, boasts of more than vary by culture and religion and change over time. 24 million unique visitors each month (http://www So it is not surprising that mourning in the United.legacy.com/ns/about/). States in the 21st century is adapting past practices How did you/do you mourn when someone to modern life. you care about dies? How do you share messages Today in the United States, for instance, many of with others in the process? the rituals traditionally associated with funerals and memorial services often take place online. Increas- ingly, one or more family member may prepare Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 13  8 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication Communication Settings The communication setting also affects how we form and interpret messages. communication setting Communication settings differ based on the number of participants and the level of the different communication formality in the interactions (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008, pp. 52–53). These settings are environments within which people interact intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, public, and mass. Intrapersonal communication refers to the interactions that occur in our minds intrapersonal communication the interactions that occur in a when we are talking to ourselves (Photo 1.3). We usually don’t verbalize our intraper- person’s mind when he or she is sonal communication. When you sit in class and think about what you’ll do later that talking with himself or herself day or when you send yourself a reminder note as an e-mail or text message, you are communicating intrapersonally. A lot of our intrapersonal communication occurs sub- consciously (Kellerman, 1992). When we drive into the driveway “without thinking,” we are communicating intrapersonally on a subconscious level. The study of intraper- sonal communication often focuses on its role in shaping self-perceptions and in manag- ing communication apprehension, that is, the fear associated with communicating with others (Richmond & McCroskey, 1997). Our study of intrapersonal communication focuses on self-talk as a means to improve self-concept and self-esteem and, ultimately, communication competence in a variety of situations. interpersonal Interpersonal communication is characterized by informal interaction between two communication people who have an identifiable relationship with each other (Knapp & Daly, 2002). Talk- informal interaction between two people who have an ing to a friend between classes, visiting on the phone with your mother, and texting or identifiable relationship with chatting online with your brother are all examples of interpersonal communication. In each other Part II of this book, our study of interpersonal communication includes the exploration of small-group communication how we develop, maintain, improve, and end interpersonal relationships. three to 20 people who come together for the specific Small-group communication typically involves three to 20 people who come purpose of solving a problem or together to communicate with one another (Beebe & Masterson, 2006; Hirokawa, arriving at a decision Cathcart, Samovar, & Henman, 2003). Examples of small groups include a family, a group of friends, a group of classmates working on a project, and a workplace manage- public communication ment team. Small-group communication can occur in face-to-face settings, as well as one participant, the speaker, online through electronic mailing lists, discussion boards, virtual meetings, and blogs. In delivers a message to a group of more than 20 people Part III, our study of small groups focuses on the characteristics of effective groups, ethi- cal and effective communication in groups, leadership, problem-solving, conflict, and group presentations. Photo 1.3 We communicate intrapersonally when we talk to ourselves, reflect about people and events, and write in a journal. What are some Public communication is delivered to audiences of examples of your own intrapersonal communication activities today? more than 20 people. Examples include public speeches, presentations, and forums we may experience in person or via mediated or technology-driven channels. For example, when a president delivers the State of the Union address, some people may be in attendance on location, others watch on TV or the Internet, and still others view it later in the form of televised broadcast snippets, digital record- ings, or Internet videos. The Internet is also becoming the medium of choice for posting job ads and résumés, for advertising and buying products, and for political AmpH/istockphoto.com activism. In Part IV, our study of public communication focuses on preparing, practicing, and delivering effec- tive oral presentations in both face-to-face and virtual environments. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 14  Chapter 1 | Foundations of Communication 9 Mass communication is delivered by individuals and entities through mass mass communication communication delivered media to large segments of the population at the same time. Some examples include through mass media to large newspaper and magazine articles and advertisements, as well as radio and television segments of the population at programs and advertisements. The bonus chapter on mass communication and media the same time literacy focuses specifically on effective mass communication in both flat print and digital modalities. APPLY iT How much of your com- munication each day is The Communication Process intrapersonal versus inter- personal, versus public ver- The communication process is a complex set of three different and interrelated activi- sus mass communication? What are some examples ties intended to result in shared meaning (Burleson, 2009). These activities are message of each you’ve engaged in production, message interpretation, and interaction coordination. They are affected by so far today? the channels used and by interference/noise. Message Production Message production is what we do when we encode a message. We begin by forming communication process goals based on our understanding of the situation and our values, ethics, and needs. a complex set of three different and interrelated activities Based on these goals, we recall an effective canned plan script and adapt it to the current intended to result in shared situation. meaning message production what we do when we encode a Message Interpretation message Message interpretation is what we do when we decode a message. We read or listen to message interpretation what we do when we decode a someone’s words, observe their nonverbal behavior, and take note of other visuals. Then message we interpret the message based on the canned plan scripts we remember that seem simi- interaction coordination lar. Based on this interpretation, we prepare a feedback message. the actions each participant takes to adjust their behavior to that of their partner Interaction Coordination channel Interaction coordination consists of the behavioral adjustments each participant makes the route traveled by the message and the means of in an attempt to create shared meaning (Burgoon, 1998) (Photo 1.4). Shared meaning transportation occurs when the receiver’s interpretation is similar to what the speaker intended. We can Photo 1.4 In what ways have you usually gauge the extent to which shared meaning is achieved by the sender’s response engaged in interaction coordina- tion with an advisor, instructor, or to the feedback message. For example, Sarah says to Nick, “I dropped my phone and it supervisor? broke.” Nick replies, “Cool, now you can get a Droid™.” To which Sarah responds, “No, you don’t understand, I can’t afford to buy a new phone.” Sarah’s response to Nick’s feedback message lets Nick know he misunder- stood her. The extent to which we achieve shared mean- ing can be affected by the channels we use and by the interference/noise that compete with our messages. Hero Images/Getty Images Channels Channels are both the route traveled by the message and the means of transportation. Face-to-face com- munication has three basic channels: verbal symbols, Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 15 10 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication emoticons nonverbal cues, and visual images. Technologically mediated communication uses textual images that symbolize the sender’s mood, emotion, or these same channels, though nonverbal cues such as movements, touch, and gestures facial expressions are represented by visual symbols like emoticons (textual images that symbolize the sender’s mood, emotion, or facial expressions) and acronyms (abbreviations that stand acronyms abbreviations that stand in for in for common phrases) (Photo 1.5). For example, in a face-to-face interaction, Barry common phrases might express his frustration about a poor grade verbally by noting why he thought the media richness grade was unfair, visually by showing the assignment along with the grading criteria for how much and what kinds of it, and nonverbally by raising his voice and shaking his fist. In an online interaction, information can be transmitted via a particular channel however, he might need to insert a frowning-face emoticon ( ) or the acronym “POed” to ­represent those emotions and nonverbal behaviors. synchronicity With so many technology-driven channels available for communicating today, we the extent to which a channel allows for immediate feedback must now thoughtfully select the best channel for our purpose, audience, and situation. We can do so by considering media richness and synchronicity. interference/noise any stimulus that interferes with Media richness refers to how much and what kinds of information can be trans- the process of achieving sharing mitted via a particular channel. Face-to-face is the richest channel because we can hear meaning the verbal message content and observe the nonverbal cues to interpret its meaning. physical noise Sometimes, however, communicating face-to-face is either impossible or not a good any external sight or sound that use of time. The less information offered via a given channel, the leaner it is. The leaner distracts us from the message the channel, the greater the chances are for misunderstanding. For example, texts and psychological noise “tweets” are lean because they use as few characters as possible whereas videoconferenc- thoughts and feelings that compete with the sender’s ing channels such as Skype and FaceTime are richer because we can observe nonverbal message for our attention cues almost as much as in a face-to-face setting. Synchronicity is the extent to which a channel allows for immediate feedback. Synchronous channels allow communication to occur in “real time” and asynchronous APPLY iT channels allow for “lag time.” Synchronous channels allow for immediate feedback to What symbols do you use clarify potential misunderstandings whereas asynchronous channels provide time to to express emotions virtu- careful craft and revise our messages (Condon & Cech, 2010). Generally, you should use ally for anger? Frustration? a rich channel if your message is complicated, difficult, or controversial. It is also usually Laughter? Excitement? Pride? Why? a good idea to use a synchronous channel in these cases. You might choose an asynchro- nous channel, however, if you could benefit from having extra time to carefully organize and word your message. On the other hand, use a lean channel when you merely want to convey simple and emotionally neutral information. Figure 1.1 illustrates the con- tinuum of communication channels available today. Photo 1.5 What emoticons and acronyms do you use in text messages and why? Interference/Noise Interference, also referred to as noise, is any stimulus that interferes with the process of achieving shared meaning. Noise can be physical or psychological. Physical noise is any exter- nal sight or sound that distracts us from the message. For example, when someone enters the room, a cell phone goes off, or someone near us is texting while a speaker is talking, we might be distracted from the message. Or, when commu- Thomas Weightman / Alamy nicating online, we might be distracted when we get a Face- book or Twitter notification. Psychological noise refers to the thoughts and feelings we experience that compete with the sender’s message for our attention. So when we daydream about what we have to do at work or feel offended when a Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 16  Chapter 1 | Foundations of Communication 11 ASYNCHRONOUS SYNCHRONOUS Figure 1.1 Bulk Letters Posted Letters Facebook Interactive Telephone Skype Face-to-Face Continuum of communication Posters E-mail My Space Chat iChat E-mail Spam Text Other social Other video channels © Cengage Learning Messages media Web sites conferencing LEAN RICH LOW SOCIAL PRESENCE HIGH SOCIAL PRESENCE speaker uses foul language, we are being distracted by psychological noise. Recall how Jen- nifer in the opening vignette was distracted by both physical and psychological noise while attempting to multitask getting herself ready for work. That’s why it is a good practice to close social media sites and power off smart phones while engaged in important face-to- face or online conferences, meetings, or classroom discussions. A Model of the Communication Process In summary, let’s look at a graphic model of a message exchange between two people presented in Figure 1.2. The process begins when one person who we will call Andy is motivated to share his thoughts with another person, Taylor. Andy reviews the commu- nication situation, including the communication context, and sorts through the scripts in his canned plan library to find one he thinks will be appropriate. Based on this script, he encodes a customized message and shares it with Taylor. Taylor decodes the message using her understanding of the situation and matching it to scripts in her canned plan library. She might misinterpret Andy’s intended meaning because she is distracted by physical or psychological interference/noise, or because her scripts don’t match Andy’s. Taylor encodes a feedback message using a script from her canned plan library as a guide. She then shares her feedback message and Andy decodes it. If Taylor understood what Andy was saying, he will extend the conversation. If, on the other hand, Andy believes Taylor misunderstood his meaning, he will try to clarify what he meant before extending the conversation. Finally, the communication process is not linear. In other words, both Andy and Taylor simultaneously encode and decode verbal and nonverbal messages throughout the message exchange. Context Figure 1.2 Model of communication Messages through multiple channels Participant (verbal and nonverbal) Participant Simultaneously sends and Simultaneously sends and receives verbal and nonver- receives verbal and nonver- bal messages. bal messages. (Internal Interference) (Internal Interference) © Cengage Learning External External Interference Interference External Interference Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 17 12 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication Characteristics of Communication Just as we learn to walk, so do we learn to communicate. Because communication is learned, we can always improve our ability to communicate. Several communication char- acteristics provide a foundation for practicing and improving our communication skills. Communication Has Purpose Whenever we communicate, we have a purpose for doing so. The purpose may be seri- ous or trivial, and we may or may not be aware of it at the time. Here we list five basic purposes we’ll be addressing throughout the book. 1. We communicate to develop and maintain our sense of self. Through our inter- actions, we learn who we are and what we are good at. 2. We communicate to meet our social needs. Just as we need food, water, and shel- ter, so too do we need contact with other people. Two people may converse happily for hours about inconsequential matters that neither one remembers later. Still, their communication functions to meet this important human need. 3. We communicate to develop and maintain relationships. For example, when Beth calls Leah to ask whether she’d like to join her for lunch to discuss a class proj- ect, her purpose actually may be to resolve a recent misunderstanding, because she wants to maintain a positive relationship with Leah. 4. We communicate to exchange information. Whether trying to decide how warmly to dress or whom to vote for in the next election, we all communicate to exchange information. We do so through observation, reading, and direct communication with others both face-to-face and virtually. 5. We communicate to influence others. We may communicate to try to convince friends to go to a particular restaurant or to see a certain movie, a supervisor to alter the work schedule, or an instructor to change a grade. Communication Is Continuous We are always sending and interpreting messages. Even silence communicates if another person infers meaning from it. Why? Because our nonverbal behavior represents reac- tions to our environment and to the people around us. If we are cold, we might shiver; if we are hot or nervous, we might perspire; if we are bored, happy, or confused, our nonverbal language will probably show it. Communication Is Irreversible Once an exchange takes place, we can never go back in time and erase the communica- tion. We might be able to repair damage we have done, but the message has been com- municated. When you participate in an online discussion or leave a post on a blog, you are leaving an electronic “footprint” that others can follow and read. E-mails, IMs, and text messages are not always completely private either. Once you push the “send” button, not only can’t you take it back, but you have little control over who the receiver might forward it to or how it might be used publicly. That’s why Sarah decided not to post a picture of herself with her friends at the local pub on her Facebook page. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 18  Chapter 1 | Foundations of Communication 13 Even though she could limit which of her “friends” could see it, she also knew that any of them could also then share it with others, as well. She didn’t want a photo like this to hurt her professional image. Communication Is Situated Communication occurs within a specific setting that affects how the messages are produced, interpreted, and coordinated (Burleson, 2009). Do you swear when you Radius Images / Alamy talk? For most of us the answer to that is “it depends.” While we may occasionally use curse words when we are with friends or peers, many of us wouldn’t consider swearing in front of our supervisors, teachers, grand- Photo 1.6 How might you mothers, or religious leaders. Similarly, the interpretation of the statement “I love you” signal trust and intimacy during varies depending on the setting. During a candlelit anniversary dinner, it may be inter- a conversation? preted as a statement of romantic feelings. If a mother says it as she greets her daughter, it may be interpreted as motherly love. If it is made in response to a joke delivered by someone in a group of friends gathered to watch a football game, it may be interpreted as a complement for being clever. Communication Is Indexical How we communicate is also an index or measure of the emotional temperature of our index relationship at the time. For instance, when they are getting in the car to leave for a measure of the emotional temperature of our relationship holiday, Laura says to Darryl, “I remembered to bring the map.” She is not just reporting at the time information. Through her tone of voice and other nonverbal cues, she is also commu- nicating something about the relationship, such as, “You can always depend on me,” or “You never remember to think of these things.” More specifically, communication may signal the level of trust; who has control; and the degree of intimacy in a relationship (Millar & Rogers, 1987). trust Trust is the extent to which partners believe they can rely on, depend on, and have the extent to which partners faith in their partners (Photo 1.6). For instance, Mark says, “I’ll do the final edits and have faith that their partners will turn in the paper.” Sandy replies, “Never mind, I’ll do it so that it won’t be late,” which not intentionally do anything to harm them may signal that she doesn’t trust Mark to get the group’s paper in on time. Control is the extent to which partners believe themselves to be “in charge” in the control the degree to which one relationship. When Tom says to Sue, “I know you’re concerned about the budget, but participant is perceived to be I’ll see to it that we have enough money to cover everything,” through his words, tone more dominant or powerful of voice, and nonverbal behavior, he is signaling that he is “in charge” of the finances. In complementary feedback turn, Sue may respond by either verbally responding or nonverbally showing she agrees a message that signals with him or by challenging him and asserting her desire to control the budget. In other agreement about who is in control words, control is communicated with either complementary or symmetrical feedback. Complementary feedback signals agreement about who is in control, whereas symmetrical feedback a message that signals symmetrical feedback signals disagreement. If Sue says, “Great, I’m glad you’re looking disagreement about who is in after it,” her feedback complements his message. But if Sue responds, “Wait a minute, you’re control Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 19 14 Unit 1 | Foundations of Communication the one who overdrew our checking account last month,” she is challenging his control with a symmetrical response. Relational control is not negotiated in a single exchange, but through many message exchanges over time. The point, however, is that control is negotiated through communication. intimacy Intimacy is the degree of emotional closeness in a relationship. When Cody asks the degree of emotional Madison what she is thinking about, and Madison begins to pour out her problems, she is closeness, in a relationship revealing a high level of intimacy in the relationship. If she replies, “Oh I’m not really think- ing about anything important. Did you hear the news this morning about... ,” her subject change may signal that the relationship is not intimate enough to share her problems. Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought Recall that creating shared meaning involves encoding and decoding verbal messages, nonverbal cues, and even visual images. Our messages may (1) occur spontaneously, (2) be based on a “script,” or (3) be carefully constructed. spontaneous expressions Many messages are spontaneous expressions, spoken without much conscious spoken without much conscious thought. For example, when you burn your finger, you may blurt out, “Ouch!” When thought something goes right, you may break into a broad smile. Some messages are scripted and constructed messages drawn from our canned plan libraries. Finally, some are constructed messages that are formed carefully and formed carefully and thoughtfully when our known scripts are inadequate for the situation. thoughtfully when our known scripts are inadequate for the situation