Communication Skills MCM301 PDF

Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU COMMUNICATION Skills MCM301 Table of Contents: Page no. Lesson 1 Communication...

Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU COMMUNICATION Skills MCM301 Table of Contents: Page no. Lesson 1 Communication 3 Lesson 2 Levels of communication 6 Lesson 3 Interpersonal communication 9 Lesson 4 Communication in the Organization: Guiding Principles 12 Lesson 5 Communication Destination 15 Lesson 6 Listening 20 Lesson 7 Improving your Listening skills 24 Lesson 8 Nonverbal communication 27 Lesson 9 Barriers to communication 31 Lesson 10 Barriers to communication (continued) 33 Lesson 11 Overcoming communication barriers 35 Lesson 12 Speech 38 Lesson 13 Selecting a topic 40 Lesson 14 Thesis statement 44 Lesson 15 Introduction of Speech 47 Lesson 16 Body of Speech 51 Lesson 17 Modes of Delivery 56 Lesson 18 Strategic Oral Delivery 58 Lesson 19 Making a Good Speech 65 Lesson 20 Handling Questions and Answers 69 Lesson 21 Responding Questions & Answers 73 Lesson 22 Significance of the Setting 81 Lesson 23 Visual Aids 89 Lesson 24 Visual Aids(continued) 93 Lesson 25 Group Communication 98 Lesson 26 Elements of Effective written Communication 106 Lesson 27 Elements of Effective written Communication(continued) 112 Lesson 28 Elements of Effective written Communication(continued) 117 Lesson 29 Preparing for Effective Business Writing 120 Lesson 30 Preparing for Effective Business Writing(continued) 122 Lesson 31 Preparing for Effective Business Writing(continued) 126 Lesson 32 Parts of Business Letters 130 Lesson 33 Direct Request Letters 138 Lesson 34 Direct Request Letters (Continued) 142 Lesson 35 Direct Request Letters (Continued) 145 Lesson 36 Good Newsletters 148 Lesson 37 Disappointing Newsletters 155 Lesson 38 Disappointing Newsletters(continued) 159 Lesson 39 Disappointing Newsletters(continued) 161 Lesson 40 Writing Persuasive Message 166 Lesson 41 Writing Persuasive Message(Continued) 171 Lesson 42 Writing Persuasive Message(Continued) 174 © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 43 Writing Resume 184 Lesson 44 Writing Resume (continued) 190 Lesson 45 Overview 193 © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 2 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 01 Communication Communication is derived from the Latin word ‘Communico’ which means “to share”. Hence the word “communication” means: the process of sharing. One may ask, sharing what? Obviously – sharing information, which could be facts, ideas, thoughts, feelings, needs, etc. This sharing takes place from one person to another so that it is understood. This process involves systematic and continuous process of speaking, listening, and understanding. Therefore, Communication is a process, which involves sharing of information between people through a continuous activity of speaking, listening, and understanding. Why is Communication Important? Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to talk. But in order to speak well and communicate effectively you have to learn the art and improve upon your ability to talk. Speaking, listening, and our ability to understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are the skills we develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills by observing other people and changing our behaviors based on what we see. We also learn communication skills directly through education, practice and constant evaluation of the responses we get from people around us. Importance of communication has always been realized in all times because it is the most vital means by which people are connected together in the society. However, today communication plays a crucial role in almost all aspects of life. Work in business, government or organizations are impossible without communication. People have to communicate with each other, exchange information, make decisions, talk about new ideas, plans, proposals etc. They also have to communicate externally with foreigners and people of other races and languages. For a moment, turn your eyes inward and see how much of your waking hours you spend in communication. Nearly 70% – writing, reading, speaking, & listening. As a college student, 69 percent of your communication time is spent on speaking and listening. You spend 17 percent of your communication time on reading and 14 percent writing. Don’t forget, therefore, that communication is inevitable in one’s life. Today, in this age & world, a successful person is the one - who can communicate effectively. Pick up any newspaper and scan the jobs wanted advertisements. You will find that communication skills are one of the essential prerequisites in most of the occupations. Be it engineers, business managers, sales officers, operators, etc. Any vocation you choose- oral communication skills are identified as valuable for both obtaining employment and successful job performance. Big corporations and multinational organizations need better communication skills in their employees so that they are able to work in teams and with people from diverse backgrounds. Remember we are living in a communications revolution; we are living in an age of increasing talk. When we have to talk, we might as well talk well, and talk wise. The Communication Process or Cycle Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. And effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intends to transmit. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Studying the communication process is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side-to-side. Let us look into the details and see: What is involved in the communication process? The steps involved in this process are: 1. Idea: Information exists in the mind of the sender (who is the source). This can be a concept, idea, information, or feelings. 2. Encoding: The source initiates a message by encoding the idea (or a thought) in words or symbols and sends it to a receiver. The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions of our faces are the message. 3. The Channel: The channel in the communication process is the medium that the sender uses to transmit the message to the receiver. Care needs to be exercised in selecting the most effective channel for each message. Even though both an oral and a written medium may be appropriate to transmit a particular message, one medium may be more effective than the other. To illustrate, let’s assume that an individual desires an immediate reply to a question. Although the message could be in either an oral or a written form, the oral medium most likely will be more effective because of the immediacy, if required. In selecting an appropriate channel, the sender must assess the following factors, as the situation demands: -need for immediate transmission of message, (Fax instead of letter) -need for immediate feedback, (Phone instead of fax) -need for permanent record of the message, (Written rather than oral) -degree of negotiation and persuasion required, (Personal meeting – face-to face) -the destination of the message, and (Far flung area – letter only) -the nature of the content of the message. (Has to be a contract –written) In addition, the sender should take into consideration his/her skill in using each of the alternative channels, as well as the receiver’s skill in using each of the channels. Communication rarely takes place over only one channel; two or three even four channels are normally used simultaneously. Example: in face-to-face interactions, we speak and listen but we also gesture and receive these signals visually. 4. Decoding: It is the act of understanding messages (words or symbols). This is known as Decoding. When the sound waves are translated into ideas, we are taking them out of the code they are in, hence decoding. Thus, listeners and readers are often regarded as Decoders. During the transmitting of the message, two processes will be received by the receiver. Content and Context. Content is the actual words or symbols of the message which is known as language – i.e. spoken and written words combined into phrases that make grammatical and semantic (meaning) sense. We all use © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU and interpret the meanings of words differently, so even simple messages can be misunderstood (Are you going to give me or not?). And many words have different meanings to confuse the issue even more (You are smart.). Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as Paralanguage - tone of voice, the look in the sender's eye's, body language, hand gestures, state of emotion (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence, etc.). Paralanguage causes messages to be misunderstood as we believe what we see more than what we hear; we trust the accuracy of nonverbal behaviors more than verbal behaviors. Many managers think they have communicated once they told someone to do something, "I don't know why was not the work done?...I told my Secretary to do it." As a matter of fact, the secretary misunderstood the message. Remember: A message is never communicated unless it is understood by the receiver. Question arises then, how do you know a message has been properly received? 5. Feedback: By two-way communication or feedback. This feedback will tell the sender that the receiver understood the message, its level of importance, and what must be done with it. So the feedback loop is the final link in the communication process. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been, in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved or not. The purpose of feedback is to change and alter messages so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. It includes verbal and nonverbal responses to another person's message. There are five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations. 1. Evaluation: Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the sender's statement. 2. Interpretation: Paraphrasing - attempting to explain what the sender's statement means. 3. Support: Attempting to assist or support the sender. 4. Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point. 5. Understanding: Attempting to discover completely what the sender means by his/her statement. Noise: The presence of noise can result in fairly significant problems in the communication process. Unfortunately, communication is effected by noise, which is anything – whether in the sender, the transmission, on the receiver – that hinders communication. For example: o A noisy environment may hinder the development of a clear thought. o Encoding may be faulty because of the use of ambiguous symbols. o Transmission may be interrupted by noise in the channel, such as a poor telephone connection, misprinted text, or maybe a typographical mistake. o Inaccurate reception may be caused by inattention. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 02 Levels of Communication There are five levels of communication: 1. Intrapersonal Communication 2. Interpersonal Communication 3. Mediated Communication 4. Person-to-Group Communication 5. Mass Communication Intrapersonal Communication When you think, you use intrapersonal communication. You initiate, receive, and process messages within yourself. You are playing both the roles of: sending & receiving. Human growth depends on this internal communication. Through it you know yourself and develop your self-concept, self- determination, and self-motivation. For example, each morning you decide how to dress, what to eat, where to go, etc. This kind of internal communication forms the foundation for the other four levels of communication. The word - "Intrapersonal" - means within the person. Intrapersonal communication processes happen inside of you. Some people equate these processes with thinking. Although thinking is part of the process, intrapersonal communication includes more than what we think. More importantly intrapersonal processes include the way we think and the way we communicate with ourselves. Intrapersonal communication affects the way we receive messages from others and affects the way we send messages to others. The Self: The role the self plays in communication is vital and complex. In order to be able to identify the complex levels of the self, you first need to understand how such complexity becomes such an intimate part of the communication process. We need to recognize the complex role of the self, and how the self plays into how we communicate. At the center of how you communicate, is how you see yourself, or your sense of who you are. This sense of self is central to how you communicate with others. The term for that sense of self is self-concept. Self-concept is your image of who you are. Put another way, self-concept is the total picture of who you are. Or how you see your whole self. It is your psychological self, your physical self, your spiritual self, your social self, and your intellectual self. Self-concept is how you perceive the different parts of yourself that combine to form a total picture. At the same time self-concept also means knowing how others see you, how your colleagues see you, how your parents see you. When you interact with different groups and individuals and they see you and react to you, you pick up signals and eventually you change yourself as a result of this feedback. In fact, what research reveals is that most of our sense of self, thus, comes from interactions with other people (family, friends, co-workers). Through feedback from the process of communicating with other people, or the sending of verbal and nonverbal indicators through involvement with friends and family, you acquire a sense of how others feel about you, how they perceive you, and what they like and what they don’t like about you. And as a result of this feedback, you develop a sense of self over the course of your life, this big picture of who you are, based on all of the human interactions that you’ve had in life. And you are also constantly modifying your sense of self. Until the day you die, you will constantly modify your self-concept. This is because we are always interacting with other people, and because we are always communicating with others, we are therefore always learning more about ourselves. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 6 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Self-concept is made up of two components, self-image, and self-esteem. Self-image is literally a picture, or image, of who you are. Self-image describes you. If you take out a piece of paper and list the various roles that you play in life, you could come up at least six, eight, maybe ten different roles that you assume in your daily life. For example, the different roles that you play in life could include, you are a student, you are a son, you are a brother, you are a colleague, you are a friend……these are all different roles that you play in life. Most of our roles can be categorized in one of two categories – either achieved roles, or ascribed roles. Achieved roles are roles that you work to accomplish or to achieve, such as, professor, honor student, etc. Ascribed roles are roles that you are born into, son, brother, and sister. What’s important about identifying the different roles you play in life is that you communicate differently in each one of these roles. To be an effective communicator, you should. So self-image is how you see yourself and how you describe the roles that you play in life. Self-esteem is also how you evaluate yourself in those roles. How do you see yourself as a brother, as a friend, as a best friend? How do you rate your performance in the various roles you play in life? On a scale of one to ten, are you good to bad, great to terrible, positive to negative, effective to ineffective? No matter what evaluative scale you want to use, self-image is measured by how you evaluate yourself in those roles. Self-esteem is the process of self-evaluation; it is how you feel about yourself in each of those roles. Self-esteem is certainly affected by how others evaluate your performance in a particular role. To be found lacking in the performance of a particular role results in hurt feelings and diminished self-esteem. Intrapersonal communication processes depend upon communicators': 1. Frame of reference 2. Creativity 3. Self-talk 4. Risk-taking behavior 1. Frame of Reference Your frame of reference refers to the way you view your world. Your frame of reference is your structure for encoding and decoding messages. Your frame of reference consists of all that you bring internally to the communication situation: your beliefs, attitudes, and values; your memory of experiences; your cultural background; your stereotypes and expectations; your self-concept; your feelings and level of stress; your thinking patterns; and other psychological factors. As a speaker, understanding the frames of reference of your listeners will allow you to adapt your message for high levels of clarity and/or persuasive impact. As a listener, attempting to understand the way the speaker's frame of reference may differ from your own can help you to better understand the speaker and your reaction to the speaker. 2. Creativity One of the most important skills you can shape is that of creativity. Basically, creative thinking involves visualizing something in an innovative, new, or unique way. Humans have long valued artists because their creativity provides new ways of imagining or conceptualizing our world. In our personal and work lives, creativity can be important to each of us, particularly when solving problems. You can increase your creativity by learning to think in less traditional ways. Habitual and routine thinking patterns and structures prevent free, open problem solving. The extent to which you have developed your creative thinking affects the way you send and receive messages, the way you interact with others, and your potential for success in new situations. 3. Self-talk Another key aspect of intrapersonal communication is sometimes called self-talk or imagined communication. In imagined communication, individuals talk to someone else or to themselves as if they were another person. However, the communication takes place in their minds (internally instead of externally). © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Practical example of imagined conversations could be of students imagining communicating before it takes place. For example, while they plan their classroom presentations, they see themselves in front of the audience, imagine how fantastic they look, see some classmates listening attentively, and picture their instructor making a positive response. This approach, by the way, can help most speakers to succeed in public communication situations by reducing their anxiety. Imaginary communication is a phenomenon that most people avoid discussing. Most of us learned at an early age that people who talk to themselves are crazy. Yet, it happens with people often. Although you may not be taught to communicate interpersonally, you discover that it helps you to prepare for future communication, deal with your feelings, and learn from past communication. Imagined communication is an important aspect of your intrapersonal communication processes. 4. Risk-taking Behaviors Your willingness to take risks is largely dependent on your interpretation of past experience. If you have found risk-taking to be fun, adventure-some, or thrilling, then you are more inclined to make risky moves. At least a minimum amount of risk is necessary for growth and development. Some people consider as risk-taking behaviors only ones that are life-threatening, such as driving fast cars, or doing dangerous stunts. For our purposes, we are focusing on risk-taking in communication. When we communicate, we risk rejection by others. Additionally, behaviors that threaten our self-concept or intrapersonal processes are "risky." Often before you speak, you consider the communication in terms of risk. When you talk in class, express your ideas in a business meeting, give a presentation, or decide to communicate (or not communicate), your behaviors will be interpreted by others. Others may agree or disagree, be interested or bored, understand or misunderstand, be persuaded or argue. Because the frame of reference is different for every individual, you never really know completely how other people will react to you. But effort on your part to understand and adapt to your listeners will reduce the risk of rejection. The way we communicate is closely linked to our self-image. Most individuals find risky and threatening any efforts to change their self-image. Your intrapersonal processes about risk-taking are influenced by your past experiences and interaction with others. Your decisions about whether or not you should, or how you will, choose to interact with others are major areas of your internal or intrapersonal communication processes. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 8 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 03 Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication occurs when two (or a few) people talk face to face. Conversations, dialogues, and small group discussions are interpersonal exchanges. Each person also operates interpersonally during the exchange. Thus, an exchange with just two people involves at least three communication elements – the unique thinking done by each person and the overriding process created by the interpersonal exchange. For example, imagine that you accidentally met your friend after a long time. You had a brief chat with him. But you think of meeting him again next evening. Your friend at the same time too thinks of having another meeting with you, in the afternoon, as he is leaving by the evening flight. After some discussion you agree to meet at the breakfast time as you have a busy schedule the whole afternoon. Behavior and Interpersonal Communication In its simplest form, interpersonal relations are the interactions between two or more persons. We keep coming in contact with other people for personal, professional, social or business reasons. Whatever the context, there is an interaction between personalities in all these situations. Our perception about each other is based on the displayed behavior. The environment in which personal interaction takes place is largely determined by the behavior of the parties involved. All behaviors are motivated. The motives however, may be known or unknown, clear or unclear, controlled or uncontrolled. The net result is the variety in behaviors. Behaviors determine the quality of interpersonal relationships by directly influencing every transaction in interaction. In the organizational context, interpersonal relations become extremely important for smooth functioning of the system, greater coherence, and convergence of effort and minimization of conflict. To communicate well, we need to know our frames of reference and ourselves and to be able to assess other people. Only then can we hope to find the best ways in which to communicate effectively with them, both to pass information and build relationships. Some of the reasons we do not assess other people well are given below:  We assume that people would behave the same way in every situation.  We try too hard to put everyone into consistent categories.  We are too influenced by first impressions.  We are positively influenced where we have common characteristics with other people, e.g. same school, same function.  We are too influenced by apparent negative points, e.g. if someone is not very good at short-term decision making, we might assume that he/she is not going to be good at long-term planning either.  We make constant errors because of our own limited frames of reference and self-concept. The Contextual View Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants involved. The interact-ants are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels used, and feedback is immediate. An important point to note about the contextual definition is that it does not take into account the relationship between the interact-ants. Interpersonal communication is contextual In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU  Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both participants in the interaction.)  Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."  Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a restaurant.  Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the environmental context.  Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding. The Developmental View We have many different relationships with people. Some researchers say that our definition of interpersonal communication must account for these differences. These researchers say that interacting with a sales clerk in a store is different than the relationship we have with our friends and family members. Thus, some researchers have proposed an alternative way of defining interpersonal communication. This is called the developmental view. From this view, interpersonal communication is defined as communication that occurs between people who have known each other for some time. Importantly, these people view each other as unique individuals, not as people who are simply acting out social situations. Interpersonal channels include conversations and dialogues, interviews, and small groups. Conversations involve unstructured, informal, and slightly purposive communication transactions. They may not relate directly to business, but nonetheless contribute to smooth business functioning. Dialogues introduce purpose in relatively structured and formal transactions. The interview is a special type of dialogue. It involves purposes such as appraising an applicant for a job or disseminating information to the media. In the directive interview, the interviewer commands the transaction. In the nondirective interview, both parties give direction to the interview. The stress interviewer uses emotion-laden questions to determine how well the stress interviewer handles stress. The depth interview involves a directive probe into the topic. Small groups include four to ten people, with location, time, topic, purpose, formality, designation, and cohesion having an impact on the transaction. Methods for conducting group meetings include problem- solving, educating, brain storming, and role-playing. Functions of Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication is important because of the functions it achieves. Whenever we engage in communication with another person, we seek to gain information about them. We also give off information through a wide variety of verbal and nonverbal cues. The various functions of interpersonal communication are: Gaining Information One reason we engage in interpersonal communication is that we can gain knowledge about another individual. Social Penetration Theory says that we attempt to gain information about others so that we can interact with them more effectively. We can better predict how they will think, feel, and act if we know © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 10 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU who they are. We gain this information passively, by observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or interactively, by engaging them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often used to get information from another person. Building a Context of Understanding We also engage in interpersonal communication to help us better understand what someone says in a given context. The words we say can mean very different things depending on how they are said or in what context. Content Messages refer to the surface level meaning of a message. Relationship Messages refer to how a message is said. The two are sent simultaneously, but each affects the meaning assigned to the communication. Interpersonal communication helps us understand each other better. Establishing Identity Another reason we engage in interpersonal communication is to establish an identity. The roles we play in our relationships help us establish identity. So too does the face, the public self-image we present to others. Both roles and face are constructed based on how we interact with others. Interpersonal Needs Finally, we engage in interpersonal communication because we need to express and receive interpersonal needs. The three identified needs are: 1. Inclusion: the need to establish identity with others. 2. Control: the need to exercise leadership and prove one's abilities. Groups provide outlets for this need. Some individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups provide the necessary control over aspects of their lives. 3. Affection: the need to develop relationships with people. Groups are an excellent way to make friends and establish relationships. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 04 Communication in the Organization Guiding Principles 1. People are not mind readers. They judge you by their behavior & not by your intent We cannot communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through not only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive communication from others. 2. A word is like an arrow, once out of the bow never returns You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the witness made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. 3. We don’t exchange ideas; we exchange symbols that stand for ideas Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike. Mediated communication This level of communication occurs when two (or a few) people use some intermediate means for carrying their messages. They do not communicate face to face and thus do not have direct feedback. Mediated communication often uses a mechanical or electrical device to transmit or receive messages. Examples include the telephone, closed-circuit television, radio, radar, and the communication satellite. Mediated communication also occurs through letters, reports, forms, and interoffice memoranda. Person-to-Group Communication The person-to-group level involves one speaker and audience. The speaker usually faces the audience, and the audience usually contains people with similar interests. A small, private person-to-group situation often has some of the characteristics of interpersonal communication. However, for large public groups, the person-to-group level lacks the benefits provided by interpersonal exchanges. The traditional speaker and audience setting may include microphones, projectors, and tape player. Mass Communication Mass communication includes messages sent to large, public, dissimilar, anonymous, distant audiences using some intermediate instrument of transfer. The instruments include electronic (for example, radio, television, tape, and film) and print (for example, newspaper, magazine, book, pamphlet, brochure, direct- mail campaign). The restricted opportunity for feedback is the most serious barrier to effective mass communication. The "mass media," as they are often called, have grown to include the print media of books, newspapers and magazines, the electronic media of television, radio, and audio/video recording, and the new media of computers and computer networks. While these media differ in many ways, they all share the characteristics by which scholars define mass communication. COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION Communication is used extensively in the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Virtually every task that a manager performs requires the use of communication in one form or another. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU The nature of communication in the modern organization can be studied by examining the direction of communication flow and the destination of the communication. While communication in the modern organization flows downward, upward, and the horizontal, its destination can be either internal or external. Downward Communication Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy. The primary function of downward communication is to inform employees about things important to them such as:  Information about their jobs  Organizational policies and procedures  Feedback about their performance  Organizational goals and objectives The types of downwards communication may include instructions, speeches, meetings, announcements, memos, notifications, letters, hand-books, pamphlets, company newsletters and periodicals, bulletin boards (notice boards) policy statements, and procedures. For downward communication some use written communication, others use oral communication. Why is this needed? When employees receive appropriate downward communication from management, they can be better motivated and become more efficient. While the employees need clear job directions and safety rules, they also need to know facts about organizational strategy, products, and viewpoints on important controversial issues. Employees want to know about their benefits - health care, insurance, promotions, pensions, training, work environment, retirement, etc. etc. In a way the employees, through their collective pressure, force their employers to be accountable for their decisions through effective downward communication. Upward Communication Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organizational ladder. Upward communication is extremely important, as upper management needs to know specifically about: Production performance, marketing information, financial data, what lower-level employees are thinking, and so on. The better the quality of information they receive, the more useful and effective it will be in their decision-making efforts. Unfortunately, this flow is often hindered by people in the communication link who filter the messages and do not transmit all the information, especially unfavorable news to their bosses. Types of media used to direct information upward are reports, interoffice memos, supervisor subordinate conferences, suggestion systems, and grievance procedures. Upward internal communication is becoming increasingly important day by day. Today many executives sincerely seek frank comments from employees, in addition to the usual periodic reports. Successful managers listen closely to opinions, complaints, problems, and suggestions especially when they are © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU clearly and effectively stated. As a response to increasing global competition, some companies are developing new management styles, which make input form employees an integral part of important decisions affecting the company. Lateral Communication It includes horizontal flow of information, with people on the same or similar organizational levels, and diagonal flow, with people at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. The lateral communication is used to speed up information flow, to improve understanding, and to coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational objectives. Effective lateral communication between peers is essential in organizations to solve problems, perform job duties, prepare for meetings, listening to and making requests, writing notes and memos, and discussing and writing about projects. Most lateral communication is of an oral nature, involving a conference between the participants. In some instances the conference is conducted by telephone. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 14 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 05 Communication Destination The destination of communication is either internal or external. The ratio between internal and external communication varies from organization to organization. As the size of the organization increase, the amount of internal communication tends to increase at a faster rate than the amount of external communication. Internal Communication Each of the communication mediums discussed earlier in the downward, upward, and lateral communication sections is also classified as an internal medium. Interoffice memos, reports, and conferences are the most commonly used internal mediums within the modern organization. Effective internal communication—downward, upward, and horizontal helps increase job satisfaction, safety, productivity, and profits and decreases absenteeism, grievances, and turnover. External Communication Because most modern organizations have close ties with various publics – in fact they often depend on these publics for economic survival - external communication plays a significant role in their operations. Examples of publics that organizations communicate with are consumers, stockholders, governmental agencies, foreign suppliers, wholesalers, and retailers. Types of media used to communicate externally are: letters, reports, stockholder reports, proposals, stockholder meetings, telephone conversations, and conferences. While informal reports tend to be used commonly within the organizations, formal reports are more commonly use externally. Employees in many organizations are now finding that their responsibility for report preparation is increasing. Organizations that have stockholders hold annual stockholder meetings to conduct official business— such as electing individuals to the board of directors—as well as to present information of interest to the stockholders. These meetings, although comprised mostly of oral communication, also use some written communication. An increasing amount of organizational business is conducted over the telephone. Although the use of the telephone should result in the effective use of time, many employees are now finding that the telephone has been a fairly significant time waster, especially when several calls have to be made before the caller is reached. Excessive amounts of small talk during phone conversations can also waste time. Especially wasteful of time, human resources, and monetary resources is the practice of providing a written document to confirm the substance of the phone conversation. When this happens, the primary reason for using the phone in the first place—to save time—actually takes more time because of the duplicate effort involved in making the phone call and then preparing the written documentation. A certain number of employees in most organizations spend part of their time engaged in face-to-face conferences with individuals outside the organization. Included among these individuals are purchasing agents, sales representatives, upper-level managers, and department managers. Considerable good will can be lost easily—which may be very costly to the organization and to the outsider—unless both parties treat each other with courtesy and respect. Benefit of Communication: Employees Specific communication skills that a person may require in any organization will vary from job to job. The possession of a certain degree of communication skills will, however, pay rich dividends throughout one’s career. Not only will it lead to a more satisfying employment experience, but also increase the chances of promotions throughout one’s working life. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU The following list identifies a number of communication and related skills that will greatly benefit the employees of an organization: 1. Conflict resolution Conflict is a normal part of doing business because organizational members have different and often opposing goals. However, these differing goals keep the organization vital by stimulating creativity, promoting innovation, and bringing about change. Organizations totally devoid of conflict would become apathetic, stagnant, and unresponsive to change. Conflict resolution is a process whereby individuals resolve issues in an informal or formal atmosphere, or where issues are resolved as part of the ongoing interaction between individuals. Effective resolutions of conflict, which involves good communication, result in fewer formal grievances, improved morale, and more effective use of human resources. Conflicts are inevitable; however anger, grudges, hurt and blame do not have to be. While unmanaged conflicts, disagreements and out-of-control emotions can harm important work and professional relationships, effectively managed conflict can actually promote cooperation and build stronger relationships. Most conflicts can be resolved fairly and in a way that actually benefits all concerned. An effective conflict resolution process leads to unity by addressing concerns or issues rather than suppressing them; can get people talking to each other (instead of about each other); and enable people to be part of a team that cares. This process promotes compromise or collaboration as people learn how to work harmoniously, develop creative solutions to problems and reach outcomes that mutually benefit those involved. 2. Motivation Motivation is the process of satisfying internal needs through actions and behaviors. Motivation is not something a person is born with or without, but rather is something that can be enhanced or developed. Motivation affects individuals differently, so one must understand the process, theories, and fundamental components of motivation in order to motivate effectively. To understand motivation, it is also necessary to recognize differences among people and be cautious not to assume they share similar preferences. Motivation comes from within, from a person's own psyche, secret desires and deep-rooted needs which motivate us towards their satisfaction. To increase organizational productivity and employee performance, there are several motivational techniques that one needs to learn & use. And communication is the needed tool. 3. Problem solving In a business set up you need to work with other employees as well as get people working together in a friendly smooth environment. Coming from different backgrounds, having different experiences, beliefs, and expectations it is not always easily achieved. People working together are bound to develop differences & have problems working together. An objective and practical way out to such a situation is to identify the real problem and find an amicable way to correct it. Unfortunately, as is the case for most of the work we do, it can be very difficult to establish criteria that aren't subjective. But if one can reach a consensus on the perceived problem and establish how to measure the results of the steps one takes to address the problem, then there is a sound basis for solving the problem. Regular communication, active feedback, and carefully monitoring of the results are all what constitutes creating such a consensus. 4. Public relations Good public relations help an organization and its employees adapt mutually to each other. Often, it is termed as an indicator of an organization's performance and a program of activities. The public relations function takes many forms in different organizations, including public information, investor relations, public affairs, corporate communications, employee relations, marketing or product publicity, and consumer service or customer relations. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 16 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Basic to all public relations, however, is communicating. Well-planned, effectively handled communications are increasingly seen as essential to the success and even existence of organizations in today's changing world. Every organization - government, business, labor, professional, trade, health, cultural, financial, recreational, educational and public service - depends on people. Their attitudes, attention, understanding, and motivation can be critical to the success or failure of an organization or idea. Benefits of Communication: Organization Effective communication benefits the organization by: 1. Creating positive image, 2. Reducing cost, 3. Improving employee moral, and 4. Increasing employee productivity. In many instances, putting a little more effort into the communication process provides rich dividends for the organization. Positive Image The image outsiders have of many organizations is negative because of ineffective communication by employees. In some cases, employees knowingly use ineffective communication, but in other cases they do not realize that what they say or write produces damaging results. Employees, when using either a written or oral communication medium, have an almost infinite number of opportunities for spoiling the organizational image. The damaging situations can range from failing to answer a question to an outsider or communicating totally incorrect information. Effective communicators are concerned about the impact of what they say or write to the listener or reader. In many cases, the implication of what was said – rather than what was actually said – produces damaging results. (e.g. I have not received your cheaque vs. your cheaque is not received by me. It is with someone else in the office.) An unfortunate situation arises when the listener or reader receives a totally incorrect perception of what the speaker/writer intended. Cost Reduction Effective communication skills make a significant contribution to organizational cost reduction. To illustrate, consider the cost of preparing a typical business letter. Supposing it is rupees 50. If an employee prepares a letter that is not effective – one that results in the need for additional correspondence – the organization’s profitability is reduced. Let’s take another example. Consider an organization with 10,000 employees. If each employee on the average wastes 10% of his/her daily working hours in inefficient communication, and if that 10% is equivalent to 100 rupees, then the total amount lost would be of around one million rupees per annum. Employees Morale In many instances, managers unknowingly contribute to employee morale problems because they fail to communicate effectively with their subordinates. Managers frequently underestimate the amount of communication employee’s desire from them. As a result, information that employees would find useful simply does not get communicated. This lack of communication, in turn, creates an impression among the employees that their managers are not concerned about them or the positions they hold. When this impression is created, employee morale deteriorates. Essential for Employee Productivity Many organizations are presently concerned about their inability to improve their productivity, a necessity for their economic well-being. A variety of factors can be identified that negatively affect organizational productivity, including ineffective communication. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU In some organizations, employees are not as productive as they might be because management fails to communicate its expectations to them. Some employees have difficulty improving their productivity when they have not been made aware of what management expects of them or when they have not been fully informed how certain job tasks are to be performed. Management’s failure to communicate its goals and objectives to employees is another factor that may contribute to decrease productivity. Misconceptions about Communication The imprecise way people use the word “communication has given rise to many misconceptions, which are: We need more communication One of the most common complaints we have heard working with organizational personnel is that there is not enough communication in the organization. Top managers complaint that they seldom hear from middle managers, middle managers complain that they have been isolated from the top executives and so on. More often than not, these complaints are justified. But is the problem one of not enough communication or one of quality? The truth of the mater is that most of us are confronted by too much rather than too little communication. From the moment we awaken, we are bombarded with messages from those with whom we live, those with whom we come in contact at college, people at work, and the mass media. The problem is that we are not psychologically equipped to handle all of these messages. While the eye is capable of processing somewhere in the neighborhood of 500-million bits of information per second, the brain only can compute about 500 bits of information per second. As a result, the probability of misinterpreting communication or communicating in an inappropriate manner is quite high. The point is that the quantity of communication that characterizes an environment has little to do with the quantity of communication in an environment. While there can be little doubt that we need to improve the quality of communication in our lives, we do not necessarily need more communication. Communication solves all problems Communication is not a cure-all for the problems we experience. If we are properly skilled in communication, it can be a highly effective medium for the resolution of problems or conflicts. Unfortunately, many of us have failed to acquire sufficient skill in this regard. To assume we can eliminate problems effectively simply by being open and candid communicators, therefore, may be a mistake because communication has the potential for creating or intensifying problems, as well as the potential for eliminating problems. Communication breakdowns The idea that communication can break down is widely accepted. Generally, people assume that communication has broken down when one person has failed to accurately interpret the communication behavior of another person. While this frequently happens, it does not mean communication has physically broken down. Rather, it means that we have been ineffective in communicating. Ineffectual communication usually is symptomatic of some deep-seated problem between the communicators. When we accept the idea that communication can break down, however, we assume that communication is the problem. As a result, we are apt to try to treat the symptom of the problem – ineffective communication – rather than directly confront the problem. Trying the symptom instead of the real problem may accomplish little in the way of making us more effective communicators. Meanings are in words © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 18 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU One of the most common mistakes that we make as communicators is to assume that the meaning we attach to a word will be the meaning everyone else attaches to the word. This is not always the case. The meanings we associate with words are a function of our individual backgrounds and experiences with other people. Because we cannot duplicate another’s background or experiences with people, the meanings we have for the same words sometimes are quite different. To assume a word has only one meaning, therefore, may affect negatively our communication with people. “Words don’t mean – people mean.” This is to say, meaning can be subjective. Consequently, you should not automatically assume that the meaning you associate with a word will be shared by those with whom you communicate. The degree to which you and others share common meanings for words will depend on the extent to which you share common backgrounds and experiences. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 06 Listening Type of communication Percent of time Writing 11 Reading 15 Speaking 32 Listening 42 We spend more time listening than we spend at any other method of communicating. College students averaged 53 percent of their waking hours listening. Of the four communicating behaviors—speaking, writing, listening and reading—listening was second only to reading as the least arousing of the four activities. Listening is like physical fitness or wearing seat belts. Everybody knows it is desirable but finds it difficult to do on a regular basis. Most of us are unable to give close attention to what’s being said for more than sixty seconds at a time. Listening is an active pursuit. It’s demanding, hard work. Most of all, when someone is truly listening, it takes time away from the listener’s most important focus—himself. Listening goes beyond hearing. It involves making a conscious effort to hear, to give heed, take advice. Listening is the process by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind. Applying listening to business it is the conscious, active process of eliciting information, ideas, attitudes, and emotions in interpersonal, oral exchange for the purpose of increasing the listener’s capacity or planning and decision-making. Involving your listeners in what you have to say is the key to effective communication. The speaker and the listeners are interrelated. An effective listener therefore must assume some of the responsibility for effective communication. Good listeners become good communicators, and skillful listeners learn from others. Good listeners exert a positive effect on a speaker, helping to improve the speaker’s effectiveness. Listening When listening is mentioned, we think primarily of the act of sensing sounds. In human communication, of course, the sounds are mainly spoken words. Listening perceives sounds from the speaker, attaching meaning to the words, and designing an appropriate response, which involves remembering what the speaker has said long enough to interpret what, is meant. Listening involves grasping what the speaker means by seeing the ideas and information from his/her point of view. Listening is an active search for meaning. In listening, two people are thinking, sender and the receiver. Truly effective communication can’t be a monologue in which only the sender is at work. To persuade, inform, or change the listener, both parties—the speaker and the receiver (be it one or many)— must be actively involved. So true communication must be a dialogue, an exchange between you and your receiver. Two (or more) people actively engaged in the same period. The Process of Listening 1. Receiving/Hearing The first element in the listening process is hearing, which is the automatic psychological process of receiving aural stimuli. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 20 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Sound waves are received by the ear and stimulate neurological impulses to the brain. We place these sounds in a meaningful order or sequence so that they may be recognized as words. We recognize words in a pattern that constitutes a language, which then helps to convey the message from the communicator to us. Another factor in hearing is the speaker’s rate. The average speaker’s rate is between 100 to 150 words per minute. However most of us are able to comprehend rates up to 400 to 500 words per minute. Hearing is something that just happens when you open your ears or when you get within earshot of some auditory stimuli. Unlike listening, hearing begins and ends with this first stage of receiving. Listening begins (but does not end) with receiving the messages the speaker sends. The messages are both verbal and nonverbal. The English language retains two words which depict a similar auditory function: hearing and listening. Hearing is the faculty of perceiving sounds. It is believed to be the first active sensory organ in human beings, even before birth: it has been established that babies in the womb hear external sounds as early as the fifth month. Interestingly enough, hearing seems to be the last sense to cease its activity before death, and there are many examples of dying people who although cannot speak or see anymore, can still hear what is being said to, or around, them. The fact that hearing is the first and last of our senses may induce us to ask ourselves whether there is a specific reason why this is so. Indeed, it would seem rather logical to interpret this as a natural circumstance that must have some significance for our cognitive system. The fact that we are hearing does not necessarily imply that we are listening. If hearing may be defined as the physiological function of our auditory sense, e.g. that we all have the possibility of physically detecting the sounds of our environment, listening may be depicted as the psychological attribute which is in action when we want to discern the sounds heard. Listening is, therefore, hearing the sounds of our environment and responding to them actively. For this reason the definition of 'Listening Skills' implies a cognitive approach to all the kinds of sounds we hear in our daily surroundings. As we become increasingly familiar with the notion that listening, unlike hearing, implies an active response to the sounds we hear around us, a new cognitive dimension opens up for us. We may begin to realize the importance of such a skill in everyday life and the need to find new ways to promote it effectively. Furthermore, by extending this awareness towards all auditory sources in our environments an authentic revelation may take place in our life. Our cities, fields, woods are an immense source of all possible kind of sounds, most of which we have never discerned before. 2. Filtering. Filtering is the process of giving symbols meanings through the unique contents of each person’s mind. 3. Understanding. Understanding is the stage at which you learn what the speaker means. 4. Remembering. Messages that you receive and understand need to be retained fro at lease some period of time. What you remember is actually not what was said, but what you think (or remember) was said. Memory for speech is not reproductive. Rather, memory is reconstructive. 5. Evaluating. Evaluating consists of judging the messages in some way. At times you may try to evaluate the speakers’ underlying intent. Often this evaluation process goes on without much conscious thought. Evaluation is more in the nature of critical analysis. 6. Responding Responding occurs in two phases: i. Responses you make while the speaker is talking. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU ii. Responses you make after the speaker has stopped talking. These responses are feedback. E.g. “I see”, “yes”, “uh-huh” etc. etc. Levels of Listening 1. Active Listening Active listening is a special kind of listening. It is a process of sending back to the speaker what you as a listener think the speaker meant—both in content and in feelings. Active listening is less common but more beneficial and in order to get good grades, you have to be able to really listen to what is being said in the classroom. The most practical reason for a college student to improve listening skills is that good listeners are not only better students, but they also spend less time on their studies and enjoy them more than do students who are poor listeners. Students who are attentive in class and attend class regularly are far more likely to receive higher grades and to learn more. Characteristics of Active Listeners 1. Active listeners are willing to give the speaker a chance to develop his or her ideas. 2. Active listeners are open-minded about people who look or sound different from themselves. 3. Active listeners can follow several methods of organization—even poorly organized material will be listened to with some degree of tolerance. 4. Active listeners are likely to listen even more attentively when the material becomes difficult. It becomes a challenge to them. 2. Protective Listening Listeners may not listen to a speaker because they have learned to tune out certain kinds of stimuli. Listeners become speakers, and speakers become listeners and the sequence goes on. As a listener, you will sometimes hear negative and even hostile expressions aimed directly at you. While no one really likes to be subjected to hostile remarks, you have to control protective listening so verbal attacks are perceived without your having to defend or retaliate. 3. Partial Listening Listening must be a complete process where all the communicative stimuli transmitted by the speaker are acknowledged and evaluated. Responding to some of the stimuli while ignoring others will make a listener miss important facts and points that are needed for clarity and understanding. A speaker’s voice, mannerism, grammar, and pitch will increase or decrease the listener’s tendency for partial listening. As a listener and a positive speaker, you should consciously control the urge for partial listening. This will help create an environment that produces greater understanding, and, in turn, more effective oral communication. 4. Preferential Listening Listening that is directly affected by a person’s beliefs, interests, or emotions is preferential listening. Just as people may see what they expect to see, listeners may listen for what they want to hear. Personal background, experiences, habits, and family tradition will many times change or distort the speaker’s intended meaning into what the listener really wants to hear. Miscommunication is usually the result of preferential listening. Types of Listening 1. Critical Listening Critical listening is usually needed when we suspect that we may be listening to a biased source of information. Critical listening is also associated with being able to detect propaganda devices employed by a communicator. In adjusting your critical listening, focus on the following guidelines: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 22 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU  Keep an open mind.  Avoid filtering out difficult messages.  Recognize your own biases.  Avoid uncritical listening when you need to make evaluations and judgments.  Recognize and combat the normal tendency to sharpen.  Analyze the audience and adapt the message to the listeners.  Clearly organize the speech so that the listeners can follow the train of thought.  What is the speaker purpose? What does the speaker want from the audience? Is the overall, general purpose to inform or to persuade?  An intelligent, active listener is aware of the many possible meanings of words and attempts to place those words in the correct context.  Can the speech survive tests of evidence and reasoning? Are the main points supported by relevant facts and opinions? Has the speaker reasoned clearly and logically?  Does the speaker seem to know or care about what he or she is saying?  Are the speakers’ verbal and nonverbal messages consistent? Do the nonverbal messages reinforce the speakers’ thesis?  Does the speaker establish his or her credibility and behave in ways that enhance credibility?  Is the material presented relevant? Is there a point to the speech? (Or do you, the critical listener, feel like saying “So what?” at the end?  What is your overall impression of the speech? 2. Empathic Listening As the term suggests, the listener tries to demonstrate empathy for the speaker. It can also be described as listening “between the lines”. When we listen between the lines we heighten our awareness and interpersonal sensitivity to the entire message a person may be trying to communicate. Empathy is perception and communication by resonance, be identification, by experiencing in ourselves some reflection of the emotional tone that is being experienced by the other person. Empathic listening serves as a reward or encouragement to the speaker. It communicates your caring and acceptance and reaffirms the person’s sense of worth. This style of listening seems to be most important in terms of strengthening or improving a positive interpersonal relationship between the parties involved. Empathic listening often requires the opposite frame of mind from that required for critical listening. Empathic listening implies a willingness not to judge, evaluate, or criticize but rather to be an accepting, permissive, and understanding listener. Becoming an empathic requires focusing on the following guidelines:  A greater emphasis on listening than on talking.  Responding to that which is personal rather than abstract.  Following the other in his exploration rather than leading him into areas we think he should be exploring.  Clarifying what the other person has said about his own thoughts and feelings rather than asking questions or telling him what we believe he should be thinking, seeing, or feeling.  Responding to the feelings implicit in what the other has said rather than the assumptions or “content” that he has talked about.  Trying to get into the other person’s inner frame of reference rather than listening and responding from our own frame of reference.  The speaker is more apt to keep talking (vs. defending, blaming, shutting down, or withdrawing). This can build trust, intimacy, and relationships, over time. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU  Listen respectfully  Minimize misunderstandings.  Recognize and identify emotions. Are you an active listener? Read the questions below and rate yourself on each of the listening characteristics using the following scale: Always = 4 points Almost always = 3 points Rarely = 2 points Never = 1 point Listening Characteristics Responses 1. Do I allow the speaker to express his or her complete thoughts without interrupting? 4 3 2 1 2. Do I listen between the lines, especially when conversing with individuals who frequently use hidden meanings? 4 3 2 1 3. Do I actively try to develop retention ability to remember important facts? 4 3 2 1 4. Do I write down the most important details of a message? 4 3 2 1 5. In recording a message, do I concentrate on writing the major facts and key phrases? 4 3 2 1 6. Do I read essential details back to the speaker before the conversation ends to insure correct understanding? 4 3 2 1 7. Do I refrain from turning off the speaker because the message is dull or boring, because I do not personally know or like the speaker? 4 3 2 1 8. Do I avoid becoming hostile or excited when a speaker’s views differ from my own? 4 3 2 1 9. Do I ignore distractions when listening? 4 3 2 1 10. Do I express a genuine interest in the other individual’s conversation? 4 3 2 1 If you scored 32 or more points, you are excellent listener – a positive receiver of ideas through listening. A score of 27 to 31 makes you a better-than-average listener. A score of 22 to 26 points suggests that you need to consciously practice listening. If you scored 21 points or less, many of the messages that you receive are probably garbled and are not likely to be transmitted effectively. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 24 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 07 Improving Your Listening Skills The success of many of our business activities depends on how well we listen. Studies show that we spend about 80 percent of our waking hours communicating, and at least 45 percent of that time listening. But although listening is so critical in our daily lives, it is taught and studied far less than the other three basic communications skills: reading, writing, and speaking. Much of the trouble we have communicating with others is because of poor listening skills. The good news is that listening efficiency can be improved by understanding the steps involved in the listening process and by following some basic guidelines. How to Become a Better Listener When it comes to listening, many of us are guilty of at least some bad habits. For example:  Instead of listening, do you think about what you're going to say next while the other person is still talking?  Are you easily distracted by the speaker's mannerisms or by what is going on around you?  Do you frequently interrupt people before they have finished talking?  Do you drift off into daydreams because you are sure you know what the speaker is going to say? All of these habits can hinder our listening ability. Contrary to popular notion, listening is not a passive activity. It requires full concentration and active involvement and is, in fact, hard work. The following tips can help you become a better listener: Don't talk--listen. Studies show that job applicants are more likely to make a favorable impression and get a job offer when they let the interviewer do most of the talking. This demonstrates that people appreciate a good listener more than they do a good talker. Why is this so? Because people want a chance to get their own ideas and opinions across. A good listener lets them do it. If you interrupt the speaker or put limitations on your listening time, the speaker will get the impression that you're not interested in what he is saying--even if you are. So be courteous and give the speaker your full attention. Keep an open mind. Don't just listen for statements that back up your own opinions and support your beliefs, or for certain parts that interest you. The point of listening, after all, is to gain new information. Be willing to listen to someone else's point of view and ideas. A subject that may seem boring or trivial at first can turn out to be fascinating, if you listen with an open mind. Don't jump to conclusions. Many people tune out a speaker when they think they have the gist of his conversation or know what he's going to say next. Assumptions can be dangerous. Maybe the speaker is not following the same train of thought that you are, or is not planning to make the point you think he is. If you don't listen, you may miss the real point the speaker is trying to get across. Listen "between the lines." Concentrate on what is not being said as well as what is being said. Remember, a lot of clues to meaning come from the speaker's tone of voice, facial expressions, and gestures. People don't always say what they mean, but their body language is usually an accurate indication of their attitude and emotional state. Ask questions. If you are not sure of what the speaker is saying, ask. It's perfectly acceptable to say, "Do you mean...?" or "Did I understand you to say...?" It's also a good idea to repeat what the speaker has said--in your own words--to confirm that you have under- stood him correctly. If you must speak, ask questions. The goal is to get more specific and better refined information. To do so, you will have to continue questioning your counterpart. Your questioning sequence will be moving from the broad to the narrow, and eventually you will have the information to make the best decision. The second reason to continue asking questions is that it will help you uncover your counterpart's needs and wants. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Don't let yourself be distracted by the environment or by the speaker's appearance, accent, mannerisms, or word use. It's sometimes difficult to overlook a strong accent, a twitch, sexist language, a fly buzzing around the speaker's head, and similar distractions. But paying too much attention to these distractions can break your concentration and make you miss part of the conversation. If outside commotion is a problem, try to position yourself away from it. Make eye contact with the speaker, and force yourself to focus on the message, not the environment. Take advantage of your brainpower. On the average, you can think four times faster than the listener can talk. So, when listening, use this extra brainpower to evaluate what has been said and summarize the central ideas in your own mind. That way, you'll be better prepared to answer any questions or criticisms the speaker poses, and you'll be able to debate much more effectively. Provide feedback. Make eye contact with the speaker. Show him you understand his talk by nodding your head, maintaining an upright posture, and, if appropriate, interjecting an occasional comment such as "I see" or "that's interesting" or "really?" The speaker will appreciate your interest and feel that you are really listening. Motivation is an essential key to becoming a good listener. Think how your ears perk up if someone says, "Let me tell you how pleased I am with that report you did," or "I'm going to reorganize the department, and you are in line for a promotion." To get the most out of a meeting, speech, or conversation, go in with a positive attitude. Say to yourself, "What can I learn from this to make me more valuable in my industry and to my company?" You might be surprised at what you can learn, even from routine meetings and bull sessions at the water fountain. Fight off distractions. When you are speaking or negotiating, try to create a situation in which you can think clearly and avoid interruptions. Interruptions and distractions tend to prevent communication from proceeding smoothly or may even cause a setback. Employees, peers, children, animals, and phones can all distract you and force your eye off the goal. If you can, create a good listening environment. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 26 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 08 Nonverbal Communication Another important element of the communication process is nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is interpersonal communication through nonlinguistic means. In the verbal communication process, the verbal and nonverbal messages need to be consistent with one another, when they contradict with one another; the nonverbal message typically expresses true feelings more accurately than does the verbal element. The nonverbal element of the communication process is comprised of several factors including appearance, facial expressions, eye contrast, gestures, touch, posture, voice, silence, time, and space. Non-verbal communication is everything except your words. Appearance Appearance is one aspect of nonverbal communication that has important implications for both written and verbal communication. In verbal communication one’s physical appearance affects the message. Elements such as clothing, hairstyle, overall cleanliness, jewelry, cosmetics, body size, and body shape transmit messages. A person’s physical appearance can affect the impression others receive of his/her credibility, honesty, trustworthiness, competence, judgment or status. Facial Expressions One’s facial area (eyes, eye brows, forehead, mouth, and chin) is more capable of communicating nonverbally than any other part of the human body. The face sends messages about one’s happiness, sadness, anger, frustration, disgust, fear, or surprise. In fact, we generally do not have to ask people if they are happy or sad – their faces reveal their present emotional state. Eye contact While eyes play an important role in communicating emotions, eye contact is used in quite a different way in the communication process. Establishing and/or maintaining eye contact signals that a person desires to communicate – that the communication channel is open. Eye contact can also be used to signal a person’s desire to be included in a conversation, as well as to make another person somewhat uncomfortable by putting him/her under stress. Breaking eye contact also sends several signals. Among these are the telling of an untruthful statement, an uncomfortable with the communication topic or situation, a desire for the communication encounter to end, or an acknowledgement of status difference between the sender and the receiver. Direct eye contact is a compliment to most people and builds trust. But be aware of the customs of people from other countries. It may be a sign of disrespect. Eye contact is one of the most important aspects of dealing with others, especially people we've just met. Maintaining good eye contact shows respect and interest in what they have to say. Eyes can tell you a lot about someone, so watch eye movements when you ask someone a question. It is usual that if someone goes de-focused or looks up, they are going into a memory or into imagination. If they look down and to the right, they are going into a feeling. If their eyes move to the right or left, they are often talking to themselves or listening very carefully. It's useful to pick up eye clues, because it can help you know where another person is going in his thinking! Eyebrow muscle draws the eyebrows down and toward the center of the face if someone is annoyed. If someone is empathetic and caring during dialogue the eyebrows will not show the annoyed facial grimace. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Gestures The use of gestures in the verbal communication process can also add meaning to the message that the sender is transmitting. While some gestures (clenched fist, four stomping) indicate anger, others can indicate nervousness (foot tapping, finger tapping). Head nodding indicates agreement while head shaking indicates disagreement. Head nodding also signals the receiver’s desire for the sender to continue talking. Keeping one’s arms closed tends to signal uncomfortable ness while open arms tend to reveal openness and acceptance. The thumbs-up gesture is a positive sign in most of the world, but in some cultures it considered a rude gesture. Gestures do not have universal meaning in all cultures. For example, an “A-OK” gesture (circle made with the thumb and forefinger) is considered by Latin Americans to be a sign of contempt. The V-shaped hand gesture with the index finger and middle finger may mean victory or peace in the United States, but in some countries it could be interpreted as an obscene gesture. Shaking your head up-and-down means "yes" in the United States and left-to-right means "no." In some parts of the world the meanings are just the opposite. Touching This involves the use of touch to impart meaning as in a handshake, a pat on the back, an arm around the shoulder, a kiss, or a hug. Touch can communicate many different things, such as affection, playfulness, hostility, decisiveness, solidarity, assurance and urgency, to name just a few. There are four universally recognized aspects of touching, all of which communicate varying emotions and intentions. The first is the professional touch, used, for example, by businesspeople, between a professor and his/her students and two people meeting for the first time. The second is the social/polite touch, used by acquaintances who wish to convey friendly but slightly detached appreciation and affection. The third is the friendly touch, which could be used by close friends or close businesspeople and colleagues congratulating one another on an accomplishment. The fourth and most intense touch is known as intimate touch, which is usually reserved for couples expressing love and affection through kissing, hugging, or caressing. The amount and nature of touching considered appropriate for the situation varies from culture to culture. Individuals from an English, German or Swedish culture tend to use touch less as a rule, and rely upon the physical setting to set the tone of a given situation. However, those with Asian, African American, Italian or Latino heritage incorporate a much larger amount of touch into their personal exchanges, using elaborate, extended handshakes, embraces or even kisses to convey their affection and gratitude. Many misunderstandings and much discomfort can arise from a situation that places two people from drastically different cultures together. It is always best to attempt to adapt oneself as comfortably as possible to a situation to decrease the possibility of personal insult and awkwardness. Posture The posture displayed by individuals in the communication process also transmits signals about a variety of things, including status, confidence, interest, and openness. Higher-stature people often stand more erect and hold their heads higher than do lower-status people. In a sitting position, however, higher-status people are likely to have a more relaxed posture than lower-status people who tend to sit in a rather rigid, erect position. Self-confident individuals usually stand more erect than those lacking confidence. Those interested in a conversation tend to lean forward toward those with whom they are communicating, while those lacking interest may slump down. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 28 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Voice The meaning of words can be altered significantly by changing the intonation of one's voice. Think of how many ways you can say "no"-you could express mild doubt, terror, amazement, and anger among other emotions. Vocal meanings vary across cultures. In many cases, voice mannerism – pitch, rhythm, range, rate, non words (such as “ah,” “um,” “uh”), and pauses – communicate more than the actual words. Voice mannerism also communicates messages about the sender’s emotional state. Excitement is communicated by a high-pitched voice and rapid rate of speaking. Messages communicated in anger are often accompanied by a loud speaking voice, while seriousness and sadness are communicated by a low- pitched voice. Pauses may indicate uncertainty on the part of the sender. The nonverbal messages communicated by the sound of the human voice can provide valuable information during communication. There are eight attributes of speech that provide especially important vocal cues to the listener; Loudness. Without enough loudness you cannot be heard. However shouting or a harsh voice may be perceived as disruptive or insulting. Many times, lowering your voice almost to a whisper will help you make a point better than shouting. Pitch – Most factual communication includes moderate changes in the pitch of your voice. A monotone involves little or no change and may be perceived as indicating apathy or boredom. A high pitch voice may be perceived as indication excitement. A low-pitched voice may be perceived as indicating anger. Rate –A slow rate of speech may frustrate the listener. An increasing rate may be perceived as the result of increasing intensity. A fast rate may be perceived as an indicator of nervousness and it may be difficult to understand. Quality – This is the characteristic that permits you to differentiate one voice from another. Regularity – The regular or rhythmic voice will normally make you sound more confident or authoritative. Irregular speech might be perceived as more thoughtful or uncertain depending on your words and other nonverbal messages. Articulation – Speaking each word clearly makes you easier to understand. Pronunciation – To be understood, you must also use the correct sounds and emphasis in pronouncing each word. Mispronouncing a word might be perceived as indicator of ignorance or incompetence. Silence – The absence of sound can also send a strong message. Silence gives you an opportunity to listen. You can obtain useful information from the listening to what one says and how he/she says it. Silence As a type of nonverbal communication, silence has implications for both written and verbal messages. In verbal encounters, silence on the part of the receiver can communicate several things. It can communicate that the receiver wishes the sender to continue talking. A receiver who outranks the sender in the organization might use silence to make the sender feel uncomfortable. A receiver’s silence can also signal that he/she is contemplating a response before verbalizing it. Time The way individuals use their time also communicates nonverbally. Arriving late for an appointment may diminish the importance that the visitor is perceived to attach to the appointment. Making someone wait © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 29 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU for a scheduled appointment can also be interpreted to mean that the visitor is not very important to the person with whom he/she has the appointment. Cultures vary widely in the way they interpret the meaning attached to the use of time. Americans believe in arriving on time for an appointment. People of some other cultures are not affected by a visitor who arrives an hour late for an appointment. Space People in different cultures require different amounts of physical distance for communication. Too little or too much space between people can have a negative effect.  A space closer than 1.5 feet is normally considered to be for intimate communication. If you attempt to conduct any significant communication from any distance closer than 1.5 feet with somebody not very close could annoy or even make him/her nervous.  Allow a distance of 1.5 to 4.0 feet for close interpersonal contact only.  Allow a distance of 4.0 to 12.0 feet for most business transactions or consultations. Note that four feet is about the distance across the typical conference table.  Communicate only briefly or formally at a distance beyond 12.0 feet. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 30 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Lesson 09 Barriers to Communication In the process of communication, caution needs to be exercised as barriers to communication are either consciously or unconsciously erected by the sender or the receiver. These barriers hamper the growth of communication and relegate it to the status of a conversation where feedback is not expected. If either the speaker or the listener has problems in adjusting his frequency with the co-interacting, barriers would automatically be erected. Some of the barriers to communication are discussed below:  Over-communication: The quantum of the material to be communicated should be just right. Too much of it can confuse the receiver. His mental level or professional expertise requires a certain amount of information to be transmitted. In the context of communication, excess of it can lead to what is commonly termed as “information load”. The receiver would be able to comprehend and absorb only a certain amount of information beyond which he would be a passive recipient to the ongoing proceedings. Therefore, if one desires to be effective as a speaker one needs to be precise in delivering the spoken material. This will not exhaust or close the mind of the receivers. Conflicting Information: The receiver already has some information on which he expects to build up an idea after his communication with the speaker. If, unfortunately, the two pieces of information are diametrically opposite the receiver is left pondering over the reliability and validity of the original and current piece of information. He can definitely improve upon his existing stand by raising queries and sorting them out with the current speaker. But if he feels he is not in a position to ask questions or is thoroughly convinced with his existing knowledge he will not be receptive to the ongoing proceedings. Language Differences: Language itself is probably the most common barrier to effective communication. Among the problems in the use of language for communication are differences in interpretation of statements. We have all said things that we thought were perfectly clear and simple, only to have them completely misconstrued. This happens for various reasons. Sometimes it is simply the result of misunderstanding. Or it may be due to an unconscious desire not to carry out someone's request. Or perhaps the speaker has chosen a word that conveys a meaning different from that intended. Although fee, salary, wages, payment, stipend, and emolument are synonymous each has a different connotation. Language uses words to convey ideas, facts, and feelings. Sometimes semantic problems arise in the interpretation of words because the meanings are not in the words but in the minds of the people who receive them. Meanings of concrete words do not vary too much from one person to another. There is little possibility for confusion when we speak of pencil or paper or book. But as words become more abstract (democracy, honesty, happiness), they are more likely to be misunderstood. This is also true of words that carry emotional overtones in a specific society. What liberal, radical, virtue, morality, and integrity means to the speaker may not agree at all with the listener's concept of the same word. Another verbal barrier is inadequate vocabulary. If our stock of words is poor, forcing us to fumble and bumble as we attempt to express our ideas, our ability to communicate will be limited. It is important to build up our vocabularies so that we can express our ideas clearly, forcefully, and with facility rather than with second choice words. We should also make every effort to avoid errors in speaking and writing. Whether it is in spelling, dictation, grammar, or pronunciation, an error immediately forces the reader or listener to focus on the mistake. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 31 Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU Remember also to choose the proper level of language when you communicate with others. To speak above their heads or down to them condescendingly is to invite misinterpretati