Safety Professional's Reference & Study Guide PDF

SAFETY SECOND EDITION PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE W. DAVID YATES SECOND EDITION SAFETY PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE  SECOND EDITION SAFETY PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE W. DAVID YATES Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an...

SAFETY SECOND EDITION PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE W. DAVID YATES SECOND EDITION SAFETY PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE  SECOND EDITION SAFETY PROFESSIONAL’S REFERENCE & STUDY GUIDE W. DAVID YATES Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20150114 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5666-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com With enormous gratitude to my wonderful and supportive wife, Sharon, who has been there during the late nights, and to our children, Joseph, Jason, Katie, Cody, and Jesse; our grandchildren, Jonathon Elisha, Jordan Nicole, Jacob Michael, Bailey Addison, Mason Tanner, and Madison Olivia, I dedicate this book. Contents Preface................................................................................................................xxxiii Acknowledgments............................................................................................ xxxv Author...............................................................................................................xxxvii 1. The Safety Profession and Preparing for the ASP/CSP Exam............... 1 Board of Certified Safety Professionals......................................................... 1 Definitions.........................................................................................................2 Minimum Qualifications to Sit for the CSP Examination..........................3 Academic Requirements............................................................................. 4 Professional Safety Experience Requirements........................................4 ASP Process....................................................................................................... 4 CSP Process........................................................................................................ 5 Safety Fundamentals Examination Blueprint.............................................. 5 Comprehensive Practice Examination Blueprint.........................................8 Preparing for the ASP/CSP Examinations.................................................. 10 Knowing Your Strengths and Weaknesses............................................ 10 Developing an Examination Preparation Plan...................................... 11 References and Resources......................................................................... 11 Test-Taking Strategy................................................................................... 12 2. Regulations..................................................................................................... 15 Occupational Safety and Health Act............................................................ 15 Who Is Covered under the Occupational Safety and Health Act?..... 16 Horizontal and Vertical Standards.......................................................... 16 General Duty Clause................................................................................. 16 Employer Rights and Responsibilities.................................................... 16 Employee Rights and Responsibilities.................................................... 17 Communications and Correspondence with OSHA............................ 17 OSHA Inspections and Process............................................................... 17 OSHA Citations.......................................................................................... 19 OSHA Citation Penalties........................................................................... 19 Appeals........................................................................................................ 20 Employee Appeals................................................................................. 20 Employer Appeals................................................................................. 20 Petition for Modification of Abatement.................................................. 21 Notice of Contest........................................................................................ 21 Review Procedure......................................................................................22 Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)..............................22 Purpose........................................................................................................22 Scope and Application............................................................................... 23 vii viii Contents Written Hazard Communication Standard........................................... 23 Label and Other Forms of Warning........................................................ 24 Safety Data Sheets...................................................................................... 24 Employee Information and Training...................................................... 25 Training.................................................................................................. 25 Bloodborne Pathogen Standard (29 CFR 1910.1030)................................... 25 Scope, Application, and Definitions........................................................ 25 Exposure Control Plan.............................................................................. 26 Hepatitis B Vaccination and Postexposure Follow-Up......................... 26 Communication of Hazards..................................................................... 26 Record Keeping.......................................................................................... 27 Medical Records.................................................................................... 27 Training Records................................................................................... 27 Control of Hazardous Energy Standard (29 CFR 1910.147)....................... 27 Scope, Application and Purpose.............................................................. 27 Definitions................................................................................................... 28 Energy Control Program........................................................................... 29 Periodic Inspection.................................................................................... 29 Training and Communication.................................................................. 30 Confined Space Entry Standard (29 CFR 1910.146).................................... 30 Scope and Application...............................................................................30 Definitions...................................................................................................30 General Requirements............................................................................... 32 Confined Space Entry Program............................................................... 32 Entry Permits.............................................................................................. 32 Training....................................................................................................... 33 Personal Protective Equipment (29 CFR 1910.132)...................................... 33 Application.................................................................................................. 33 Employee-Owned Equipment.................................................................. 33 Hazard Assessment and Equipment Selection...................................... 33 Training.......................................................................................................34 Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134)...................................34 Purpose........................................................................................................34 Definitions................................................................................................... 35 Respiratory Protection Program.............................................................. 35 Training and Information......................................................................... 36 Fall Protection Standard (29 CFR 1926.500–503) (Subpart M).................. 36 Scope and Application............................................................................... 36 Definitions................................................................................................... 37 Duty to Have Fall Protection.................................................................... 38 Training....................................................................................................... 38 Record Keeping............................................................................................... 39 OSHA 300, 300-A, and 301 Forms (29 CFR 1910.29).............................. 39 Annual Summary................................................................................. 40 Providing Records to Government Representatives........................ 40 Contents ix Reporting Fatalities and Multiple Hospitalizations (29 CFR 1904.39).... 40 Determining Recordable Injuries or Illnesses....................................... 40 Calculating Total Case Incident Rates.................................................... 41 Calculating Days Away, Restricted, or Transfer Rates.........................42 Calculating Severity Rates........................................................................42 Key Information to Remember on Regulations.........................................43 Comparison of Health Hazards.................................................................. 107 General Comments.................................................................................. 107 Comparison of Physical Hazards............................................................... 126 Comparison of OSHA HCS and GHS Criteria.................................... 126 Comparison of Label Elements................................................................... 149 General Comments.................................................................................. 149 GHS and Transport Pictograms.................................................................. 152 General Comments.................................................................................. 152 Physical and Environmental Hazard Symbols.................................... 153 Label Examples......................................................................................... 154 Comparison of MSDS Elements............................................................. 157 General Comments............................................................................. 157 3. Math Review................................................................................................. 169 Order of Operations..................................................................................... 169 PEMDAS: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”................................. 169 Basic Rules of Positive and Negative Numbers........................................ 170 Understanding Exponents........................................................................... 170 Scientific Notation......................................................................................... 171 Multiplication and Division Using Scientific Notation...................... 171 Engineering Notation................................................................................... 172 Absolute Values............................................................................................. 173 Logarithms..................................................................................................... 173 Formula or Equation Transpositions......................................................... 174 Factorials........................................................................................................ 175 Common Geometric Equations.................................................................. 176 Pythagorean Equation.................................................................................. 176 Basic Trigonometric Functions................................................................... 177 Sine............................................................................................................. 177 Cosine........................................................................................................ 178 Tangent...................................................................................................... 179 Arcsine, Arccosine, and Arctangent...................................................... 179 Quadratic Equation...................................................................................... 181 Calculator....................................................................................................... 182 Summary........................................................................................................ 182 4. Particulates and Gases................................................................................ 183 Periodic Table of the Elements.................................................................... 183 Atomic Number........................................................................................ 183 x Contents Atomic Mass............................................................................................. 183 Atoms.............................................................................................................. 184 Chemical Bonding........................................................................................ 185 Moles.......................................................................................................... 186 Molecules and Compounds.................................................................... 186 Mixtures.................................................................................................... 186 Chemical Formulas.................................................................................. 187 Atomic Weight of Compounds.............................................................. 187 Percentage of Element in a Compound (by Weight)........................... 188 Acids, Bases, and pH’s............................................................................. 188 Gas Laws........................................................................................................ 189 Boyle’s Law................................................................................................ 189 Charles’ Law............................................................................................. 190 Ideal Gas Law........................................................................................... 190 Conversion Factors for Converting Pressure Units to Atmospheric Pressure Units.............................................................. 191 Conversion Factors for Converting Units of Volume to Liters...... 191 Converting Grams to Moles............................................................... 191 Universal Gas Constant...................................................................... 192 Combined Gas Law............................................................................. 193 Concentrations of Vapors, Gases, and Particulates............................. 193 Standard Temperature and Pressure.................................................... 194 Standards and Regulations.................................................................... 194 Time-Weighted Average.......................................................................... 194 Calculating PELs/TLVs for Periods Greater than 8 h......................... 195 Gaseous Mixtures.................................................................................... 196 Liquid Mixtures....................................................................................... 197 Percentage of TLV Mixture..................................................................... 197 Calculating PEL/TLV for Silica.............................................................. 198 Converting mg/m3 to ppm..................................................................... 198 Converting ppm to mg/m3..................................................................... 199 Lower Flammability Limit of Mixtures................................................ 199 Referenced Equations................................................................................... 200 Boyle’s Law................................................................................................ 200 Charles’ Law............................................................................................. 200 Ideal Gas Law........................................................................................... 201 Combined Gas Law................................................................................. 201 Time-Weighted Average.......................................................................... 201 Calculating PELs/TLVs for Periods Greater than 8 h.............................. 201 Gaseous Mixtures.................................................................................... 201 Liquid Mixtures....................................................................................... 202 Percentage of TLV for Mixtures............................................................. 202 Calculating PEL/TLV for Silica.............................................................. 202 Converting mg/m3 to ppm..................................................................... 202 Converting ppm to mg/m3..................................................................... 203 Contents xi LFLs of Mixtures...................................................................................... 203 Key Information to Remember on Particulates and Gases..................... 203 Reference........................................................................................................ 204 5. Toxicology..................................................................................................... 205 Definitions..................................................................................................... 205 Routes of Entry.............................................................................................. 206 Inhalation.................................................................................................. 206 Ingestion.................................................................................................... 207 Absorption................................................................................................ 207 Percutaneous and Intravenous Injections............................................ 208 Dose–Response Relationship...................................................................... 208 Exposures to Chemical Combinations...................................................... 209 Stages of Cancer............................................................................................ 210 Initiation.................................................................................................... 210 Latency Period.......................................................................................... 210 Promotion.................................................................................................. 210 Progression............................................................................................... 210 Types of Poisons............................................................................................ 210 Ames Testing................................................................................................. 211 Cohort Study.................................................................................................. 211 Advantages............................................................................................... 211 Disadvantages.......................................................................................... 211 Case–Control Study...................................................................................... 211 Cross-Sectional Study.................................................................................. 212 Common Occupational Diseases and Disorders Caused by a Contributing Agent or Substance............................................................... 212 Asbestosis and Asbestos-Related Illnesses.......................................... 212 Brucellosis................................................................................................. 213 Benzene-Related Illnesses....................................................................... 213 Byssinosis.................................................................................................. 213 Arsenic-Related Illnesses........................................................................ 214 Berylliosis and Beryllium-Related Illnesses........................................ 214 Copper-Related Illnesses........................................................................ 215 Cadmium-Related Illnesses.................................................................... 215 Chromium-Related Illnesses.................................................................. 216 Coal Dust–Related Illnesses................................................................... 216 Cobalt-Related Illnesses.......................................................................... 217 Acute Exposure................................................................................... 217 Chronic Exposure............................................................................... 217 Formaldehyde-Related Illnesses............................................................ 217 Lead-Related Illnesses............................................................................. 218 Manganese-Related Illnesses................................................................. 219 Mercury-Related Illnesses...................................................................... 220 Pneumoconiosis....................................................................................... 220 xii Contents Silica-Related Illnesses............................................................................ 221 Zinc-Related Illnesses.............................................................................. 221 Aluminum-Related Illnesses..................................................................222 Antimony-Related Illnesses....................................................................222 Dust-Related Illnesses............................................................................. 223 Common Environments for Contracting Dust-Related Illnesses....223 Thallium-Related Illnesses..................................................................... 224 Pesticide-Related Illnesses...................................................................... 224 Key Information to Remember on Toxicology.........................................225 References......................................................................................................225 6. Industrial Hygiene Air Sampling............................................................ 227 Anticipation of Hazards.............................................................................. 227 Recognition of Hazards............................................................................... 228 Evaluation of Hazards.................................................................................. 228 Control of Hazards....................................................................................... 228 Definitions..................................................................................................... 228 Air Sampling................................................................................................. 229 Sampling Methodology........................................................................... 230 Equipment Selection................................................................................ 230 Air Sampling Pumps.......................................................................... 230 Piston and Bellows Air Pumps......................................................... 231 Direct-Reading Instruments.............................................................. 231 Cyclones..................................................................................................... 232 Sampling Media....................................................................................... 232 Filters..................................................................................................... 232 Sorbent Tubes....................................................................................... 233 Sample Collection Bags or Canisters................................................234 Passive Samplers.................................................................................234 Sampling Pump Calibration...................................................................234 Determining Minimum and Maximum Sample Volumes................ 237 Determining the Minimum Number of Samples to Collect.............. 238 The Sampling Process............................................................................. 238 Industrial Hygiene Sampling and Record-Keeping Procedures........... 241 Spiramid.................................................................................................... 243 Medgate..................................................................................................... 243 ProcessMAP.............................................................................................. 243 Key Information to Remember on Industrial Hygiene Air Sampling.... 244 References...................................................................................................... 245 7. Ventilation..................................................................................................... 247 Purpose for Using Ventilation.................................................................... 247 Types and Selection of Ventilation............................................................. 247 General Ventilation.................................................................................. 248 Dilution Ventilation................................................................................. 248 Contents xiii Local (Exhaust) Ventilation..................................................................... 248 General Concepts of Ventilation Notes................................................. 248 Principles of Air Movement........................................................................ 249 Calculating for Volumetric Air Flow.................................................... 249 Calculating Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure.... 249 Calculating Velocity of Air..................................................................... 250 Contaminant Generation........................................................................ 250 Calculating Purge Rates.......................................................................... 252 Steady-State Concentration.....................................................................254 Calculating Rate of Generation for Liquid Solvents...........................254 Calculating Vapor or Gaseous Concentrations.................................... 255 Calculating Room Air Changes............................................................. 256 Calculating Concentration of a Contaminant with Dilution Ventilation................................................................................................. 257 Local Exhaust Ventilation............................................................................ 257 Canopy Hood........................................................................................... 258 Down Draft Hood.................................................................................... 258 Enclosure Hood........................................................................................ 258 Receiving Hood........................................................................................ 258 Openings................................................................................................... 258 Calculating Hood Entry Losses........................................................ 259 Calculating Airflow Velocity............................................................. 261 Calculating Capture Velocity for Plain Opening Hood................ 261 Ducts.......................................................................................................... 262 Fans............................................................................................................ 263 Calculating Static Pressure of the Fan (SPh).................................... 263 Air-Cleaning Devices.............................................................................. 263 Ventilation Measurement Equipment................................................... 264 Pitot Tubes............................................................................................ 264 Rotating Vane Anemometers............................................................. 264 Thermal Anemometers...................................................................... 264 Key Information to Remember on Ventilation......................................... 264 Reference........................................................................................................ 265 8. Noise and Hearing Conservation Program............................................ 267 OSHA’s Hearing Conservation Program.................................................. 267 Who Is Included in the Hearing Conservation Program?................. 267 Monitoring................................................................................................ 268 Sound Measuring Instruments.............................................................. 268 Employee Notification............................................................................. 268 Audiometric Testing................................................................................ 268 Standard Threshold Shift........................................................................ 269 Training Program..................................................................................... 269 Record Keeping........................................................................................ 269 Noise-Related Definitions............................................................................ 270 xiv Contents Noise.......................................................................................................... 270 Continuous Noise.................................................................................... 270 Intermittent Noise.................................................................................... 270 Sound......................................................................................................... 270 Frequency (  f  )........................................................................................... 270 Period......................................................................................................... 271 Speed or Velocity of Sound (c)................................................................ 271 Wavelength (λ).......................................................................................... 271 Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear.......................................................... 272 Types of Hearing Loss.................................................................................. 272 Major Causes of Hearing Loss............................................................... 273 OSHA Permissible Noise Exposures......................................................... 273 Entities of Noise............................................................................................ 274 Sound Power (Lw)..................................................................................... 274 Sound Pressure (Lp)................................................................................. 274 Sound Intensity (LI).................................................................................. 274 Noise Calculations........................................................................................ 274 Calculating Permissible Noise Exposures............................................ 274 Calculating Noise Dosage....................................................................... 275 Converting Noise Dosage into TWA..................................................... 276 Combining Noise Levels......................................................................... 277 Calculating Sound Levels at Various Distances.................................. 279 Calculating Sound Power Levels (Lw)................................................... 280 Calculating Sound Pressure (Lp) Levels (or SPL)................................. 280 Calculating Sound Intensity Levels (LI)................................................ 281 Calculating Room Absorption............................................................... 281 Calculating Absorption along a Transmission Path........................... 282 Key Information to Remember on Noise.................................................. 283 References......................................................................................................284 9. Biological Hazards...................................................................................... 285 Bacterial Diseases......................................................................................... 285 Anthrax...................................................................................................... 285 Brucellosis................................................................................................. 286 Leptospirosis............................................................................................. 286 Plague........................................................................................................ 287 Tetanus....................................................................................................... 287 Tuberculosis.............................................................................................. 287 Tularemia.................................................................................................. 288 Cat Scratch Fever (Cat Scratch Disease)................................................ 288 Viral Diseases................................................................................................ 289 Hepatitis A................................................................................................ 289 Hepatitis B................................................................................................. 289 Orf (Sore Mouth Disease)........................................................................ 290 Rabies......................................................................................................... 291 Contents xv Rickettsial and Chlamydia Diseases.......................................................... 292 Psittacosis (Ornithosis)............................................................................ 292 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever............................................................. 292 Q Fever....................................................................................................... 293 Fungal Diseases............................................................................................ 294 Aspergillosis............................................................................................. 294 Candidiasis............................................................................................... 295 Coccidiomycosis....................................................................................... 296 Histoplasmosis......................................................................................... 296 Biological Safety............................................................................................ 297 Laboratory Practice and Technique....................................................... 297 Safety Equipment..................................................................................... 297 Facility Design and Construction.......................................................... 299 Biosafety Levels............................................................................................. 299 Biosafety Level I....................................................................................... 299 Biosafety Level II...................................................................................... 299 Biosafety Level III....................................................................................300 Biosafety Level IV....................................................................................300 Key Information to Remember on Biological Hazards...........................300 References...................................................................................................... 301 10. Fire Protection and Prevention................................................................. 303 Definitions..................................................................................................... 303 Transfer of Heat.............................................................................................304 Heat Transfer by Radiation.....................................................................304 Heat Transfer by Convection..................................................................304 Heat Transfer by Conduction.................................................................305 Fire Tetrahedron...........................................................................................305 Classification of Fires................................................................................... 306 Class A Fires............................................................................................. 306 Class B Fires.............................................................................................. 306 Class C Fires.............................................................................................. 306 Class D Fires............................................................................................. 306 Class K Fires.............................................................................................306 Portable Fire Extinguishers......................................................................... 307 Hydrostatic Testing (Portable Fire Extinguishers)..............................308 Fire Extinguisher Inspections and Service Requirements................. 309 Automatic Sprinkler Systems...................................................................... 309 Dry Pipe Systems..................................................................................... 310 Wet Pipe Systems..................................................................................... 310 Deluge Systems......................................................................................... 310 Preaction Systems.................................................................................... 311 Water Spray Systems................................................................................ 311 Foam Water Sprinkler Systems.............................................................. 311 Fire Hydrants................................................................................................. 311 xvi Contents Fire Detection................................................................................................ 312 Heat Detectors.......................................................................................... 312 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors.................................................................... 312 Rate-Compensation Detectors............................................................... 312 Smoke Detectors....................................................................................... 312 Fire Hydrants................................................................................................. 313 Flammable and Combustible Liquids........................................................ 313 Flash Point................................................................................................. 314 Vapor Pressure.......................................................................................... 314 Fire Point................................................................................................... 314 Flammable and Explosive Limit Ranges.............................................. 315 Autoignition Temperature...................................................................... 315 Specific Gravity........................................................................................ 315 Vapor Density........................................................................................... 315 Evaporation Rate...................................................................................... 315 Water Solubility........................................................................................ 317 Boiling Point............................................................................................. 317 Storage Requirements for Flammable and Combustible Liquids..... 317 Inside Storage Rooms for Flammable or Combustible Liquids........ 318 Key Information to Remember on Fire Protection and Prevention...... 318 References...................................................................................................... 319 11. Thermal Stressors........................................................................................ 321 Heat Stress..................................................................................................... 321 Sources of Heat Stress............................................................................. 321 Human Body Reaction to Heat.............................................................. 322 Safety-Related Issues of Heat................................................................. 322 Health-Related Issues of Heat................................................................ 323 Heat Rash.............................................................................................. 323 Heat Cramps........................................................................................ 323 Heat Syncope....................................................................................... 323 Dehydration......................................................................................... 324 Heat Exhaustion.................................................................................. 324 Heat Stroke........................................................................................... 324 Control Methods...................................................................................... 325 Engineering Controls.......................................................................... 325 Administrative and Work Practice Controls................................... 326 Prevention of Heat Stress Injuries......................................................... 331 Cold Stress..................................................................................................... 331 Safety Problems Related to Cold............................................................ 332 Cold-Related Injuries and Illnesses....................................................... 332 Chilblains............................................................................................. 332 Immersion Injuries (Trench Foot)..................................................... 333 Hypothermia........................................................................................334 Frostbite................................................................................................334 Contents xvii Wind Chill Factor..................................................................................... 335 Personal Protective Clothing.................................................................. 336 Nutrition and Activity............................................................................. 336 Fluid Replacement................................................................................... 336 Training and Discipline.......................................................................... 337 Susceptible Groups.................................................................................. 337 Treatment of Cold-Related Injuries....................................................... 337 Key Information to Remember on Thermal Stressors............................. 337 References...................................................................................................... 338 12. Personal Protective Equipment................................................................ 339 Hazard Assessment...................................................................................... 339 Head Protection (29 CFR 1910.135).............................................................340 Classification.............................................................................................340 Proper Fit and Wear of Head Protection.............................................. 341 Inspection and Maintenance.................................................................. 341 Training..................................................................................................... 341 Eye and Face Protection (29 CFR 1910.133)................................................342 Fitting.........................................................................................................342 Inspection and Maintenance..................................................................342 Hearing Protection (29 CFR 1910.95)..........................................................344 Hearing Protector Attenuation..............................................................344 Training.....................................................................................................345 Respiratory Protection (29 CFR 1910.134)..................................................346 Purpose......................................................................................................346 Definitions................................................................................................. 347 Respiratory Protection Program............................................................ 347 Training and Information.......................................................................348 Torso Protection............................................................................................348 Arm and Hand Protection (29 CFR 1910.138)............................................ 349 Glove Selection Chart.............................................................................. 350 Foot and Leg Protection (29 CFR 1910.136)................................................ 350 Key Information to Remember on Personal Protective Equipment......354 References......................................................................................................354 13. Statistics for the Safety Professional....................................................... 357 Descriptive Statistics.................................................................................... 357 Mean.......................................................................................................... 357 Mode.......................................................................................................... 358 Median....................................................................................................... 358 Variance..................................................................................................... 358 Normal Distribution................................................................................ 360 Calculating Correlation Coefficient....................................................... 361 Spearman Rank Coefficient of Correlation.......................................... 363 Calculating the t Test for Comparing Means.......................................364 xviii Contents Chi-Square (χ2) Statistic........................................................................... 365 Degrees of Freedom............................................................................ 365 p Values................................................................................................. 366 Permutations and Combinations................................................................ 366 Permutations with Repetition................................................................ 367 Permutations without Repetition........................................................... 367 Combinations........................................................................................... 368 Z-Score............................................................................................................ 369 Coefficient of Determination and Coefficient of Correlation................. 371 Reliability....................................................................................................... 372 Component Reliability............................................................................ 372 Probability of Failure (Component)....................................................... 372 System Reliability..................................................................................... 373 Series Reliability....................................................................................... 373 Parallel Reliability.................................................................................... 373 Probability of Failure (System)............................................................... 374 Reference........................................................................................................ 374 14. Electrical Safety........................................................................................... 375 Electricity Basics............................................................................................ 375 Voltage....................................................................................................... 375 Current....................................................................................................... 375 Resistance.................................................................................................. 375 Series and Parallel Circuits..................................................................... 376 Series Circuits...................................................................................... 376 Parallel Circuits................................................................................... 376 Direct and Alternating Currents........................................................... 376 Direct Currents.................................................................................... 376 Alternating Currents.......................................................................... 376 Calculating Values of Voltage, Current, and Resistance (Ohm’s Laws).... 377 Calculating Voltage in DC Circuits....................................................... 377 Calculating Voltage in AC Circuits....................................................... 377 Calculating Power in DC Circuits......................................................... 378 Calculating Power in AC Circuits......................................................... 378 Calculating Resistance in DC Circuits.................................................. 378 Calculating Resistance in AC Circuits.................................................. 379 Resistors......................................................................................................... 379 Calculating the Resistance in a Series Circuit..................................... 379 Calculating the Resistance in a Parallel Circuit.................................. 380 Capacitors....................................................................................................... 380 Calculating Capacitance in a Series Circuit......................................... 380 Calculating Capacitance in a Parallel Circuit...................................... 381 Inductors........................................................................................................ 382 Calculating Inductance in a Series Circuit........................................... 382 Calculating Inductance in a Parallel Circuit........................................ 382 Contents xix Electrical Shock Hazard............................................................................... 383 Burns Caused by Electricity........................................................................384 Arc Blasts...................................................................................................384 Electrical Fires............................................................................................... 385 Controlling Electrical Hazards................................................................... 385 Exposed Electrical Parts.......................................................................... 385 Overhead Power Lines............................................................................ 385 Inadequate Wiring................................................................................... 386 Defective or Damaged Cords and Wires.............................................. 386 Use of Flexible Cords............................................................................... 386 Improper Grounding............................................................................... 387 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters......................................................... 387 Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor Program........................ 387 Overloaded Circuits................................................................................. 387 Safety-Related Work Practices................................................................ 388 Planning.................................................................................................... 388 Training..................................................................................................... 388 Key Information to Remember on Electrical Safety................................ 389 References...................................................................................................... 389 15. Mechanics..................................................................................................... 391 Energy............................................................................................................. 391 Kinetic Energy.......................................................................................... 391 Potential Energy....................................................................................... 392 Elastic Potential Energy.......................................................................... 393 Force................................................................................................................ 394 Contact Forces........................................................................................... 394 Action-at-a-Distance Forces.................................................................... 395 Defining Mass and Weight..................................................................... 395 Amount of Force....................................................................................... 396 Frictional Force......................................................................................... 396 Force and Distance................................................................................... 397 Momentum.................................................................................................... 398 Work................................................................................................................ 398 Modified Work......................................................................................... 399 Newton’s Laws of Motion............................................................................400 Speed..............................................................................................................400 Velocity...........................................................................................................400 Calculating Final Velocity........................................................................... 401 Calculating Displacement........................................................................... 402 Key Information to Remember on Mechanics.......................................... 403 Reference........................................................................................................404 16. Hydrostatics and Hydraulics..................................................................... 405 Water Properties............................................................................................405 xx Contents Hydrostatic Pressure.................................................................................... 406 Torricelli’s Law.............................................................................................. 407 Head Pressure............................................................................................... 409 Velocity Head................................................................................................ 410 Velocity Pressure at Constant Laminar Velocity...................................... 410 Flow Rates and Pressure Drops.................................................................. 412 Flow Rates and Pressures............................................................................ 413 Calculating Pressure Loss Due to Friction................................................ 414 Bernoulli’s Principle..................................................................................... 415 Key Information to Remember on Hydrostatics and Hydraulics.......... 417 References...................................................................................................... 418 17. Training......................................................................................................... 419 Principles of Adult Learning....................................................................... 419 Safety Training Program............................................................................. 420 Delivery Methods......................................................................................... 421 Instructor-Led Training.......................................................................... 421 Self-Paced Learning.................................................................................422 Structured On-the-Job Training.............................................................423 Training Needs Analysis.............................................................................423 Type of Needs Analysis..........................................................................423 Techniques................................................................................................ 424 Training Program Development................................................................. 424 Written Performance Objectives............................................................425 Developing Course Outline....................................................................425 Selection of Training Delivery Method................................................425 Development of Course Materials......................................................... 426 Testing and Evaluation............................................................................ 426 Pretests.................................................................................................. 426 Review Tests......................................................................................... 426 Posttests................................................................................................ 426 Media Presentations..................................................................................... 427 PowerPoint Presentations....................................................................... 427 Charts and Graphs................................................................................... 428 Key Information to Remember on Training............................................. 428 Reference........................................................................................................ 428 18. Engineering Economics.............................................................................. 429 Simple Interest............................................................................................... 429 Compound Interest.......................................................................................430 Future Value of Money................................................................................. 431 Loan Balance................................................................................................. 432 Time Value of Money................................................................................... 433 Series Compound Amount Factor..............................................................434 Sinking Fund Factor..................................................................................... 435 Contents xxi Capital Recovery Factor............................................................................... 435 Series Present Worth Factor........................................................................ 436 Summary........................................................................................................ 437 Reference........................................................................................................ 437 19. Management Theories................................................................................ 439 Management Theories.................................................................................. 439 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs................................................................ 439 Physiological Needs............................................................................ 439 Safety Needs........................................................................................440 Love and Belonging............................................................................440 Esteem................................................................................................... 441 Self-Actualization................................................................................ 441 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y..................................................... 441 Theory X............................................................................................... 441 Theory Y...............................................................................................442 Herzberg Motivational Theory..............................................................443 The Deming Cycle....................................................................................443 Management by Objectives....................................................................443 Contingency Theory................................................................................444 Systems Theory........................................................................................444 Chaos Theory............................................................................................445 Management Styles.......................................................................................445 Directive Democrat..................................................................................445 Directive Autocrat....................................................................................445 Permissive Democrat...............................................................................445 Permissive Autocrat.................................................................................446 Key Information to Remember on Management Theories.....................446 References......................................................................................................446 20. Accident Causation and Investigation Techniques.............................. 447 Domino Theory.............................................................................................448 Heinrich’s Axioms of Industrial Safety................................................ 449 Human Factors Theory................................................................................ 451 Accident/Incident Theory........................................................................... 452 Epidemiological Theory............................................................................... 453 Systems Theory.............................................................................................454 Energy Release Theory................................................................................ 455 Behavior Theory............................................................................................ 456 Combination Theory.................................................................................... 456 Modern Causation Model............................................................................ 457 Operating Errors...................................................................................... 457 Systems Defects........................................................................................ 458 Command Error....................................................................................... 458 Safety Program Defect............................................................................ 458 xxii Contents Safety Management Errors..................................................................... 458 Seven Avenues............................................................................................... 458 Safety Management Error Countermeasures...................................... 459 Safety Program Defect Countermeasures............................................ 459 Command Error Defect Countermeasures.......................................... 459 System Defects Countermeasures......................................................... 459 Operating Errors Countermeasures...................................................... 459 Mishap Countermeasures....................................................................... 460 Result Countermeasures......................................................................... 460 Near-Miss Relationship............................................................................... 460 Accident Investigation Procedures............................................................. 461 Purpose of the Investigation.................................................................. 461 Investigation Procedures........................................................................ 461 Fact Finding................................................................................................... 462 Interviews......................................................................................................463 Problem-Solving Techniques (Accident Investigation Techniques)......463 The Scientific Method..............................................................................463 Gross Hazard Analysis...........................................................................464 Job Safety Analysis.................................................................................. 465 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis...................................................... 465 Fault Tree Analysis.................................................................................. 466 Multilinear Events Sequencing Method............................................... 466 Report of Investigation................................................................................. 468 Key Information to Remember on Accident Causation and Investigation Techniques............................................................................. 469 References...................................................................................................... 470 21. Workers’ Compensation............................................................................. 471 History of Workers’ Compensation in the United States........................ 471 Current Workers’ Compensation Laws..................................................... 472 Coverage Exemptions................................................................................... 473 Workers’ Compensation Premiums........................................................... 474 Calculating Experience Modification Rates......................................... 474 Waiver of Subrogation............................................................................. 475 Safety Professional’s Role and Responsibilities in Workers’ Compensation............................................................................................... 475 Reporting of Injuries and Claims.......................................................... 476 Case Management.................................................................................... 477 Prompt Reporting............................................................................... 477 Return-to-Work/Light Duty Program............................................. 477 Key Information to Remember on Workers’ Compensation.................. 478 Reference........................................................................................................ 479 22. Ergonomics.................................................................................................... 481 Definitions..................................................................................................... 481 Contents xxiii NIOSH Lifting Equation..............................................................................483 Horizontal Component................................................................................484 Horizontal Multiplier.............................................................................. 485 Vertical Component...................................................................................... 485 Vertical Multiplier.................................................................................... 485 Distance Component.................................................................................... 486 Asymmetry Component.............................................................................. 486 Frequency Component................................................................................. 487 Lifting Duration....................................................................................... 489 Frequency Multiplier............................................................................... 489 Coupling Component................................................................................... 490 Coupling Multiplier................................................................................. 490 Lifting Index.................................................................................................. 490 Job Analysis Worksheet............................................................................... 491 Example Problems........................................................................................ 491 Problem 1................................................................................................... 491 Problem 2................................................................................................... 493 Key Information to Remember on Ergonomics........................................ 495 References...................................................................................................... 496 23. Construction Safety.................................................................................... 497 Excavation...................................................................................................... 497 Soil Classifications................................................................................... 499 Protective Systems...................................................................................500 Sloping..................................................................................................500 Shoring..................................................................................................500 Shields (Trench Boxes)........................................................................500 RPE-Designed Protective Systems.................................................... 501 Safe Entry and Exit.................................................................................. 501 Most Commonly Cited Trenching Violations...................................... 502 Electrical Safety in Construction................................................................ 502 Electrical Definitions............................................................................... 502 Electrical Injuries.......................................................................................... 503 Electrical Shock........................................................................................ 503 Burns.......................................................................................................... 503 Falls............................................................................................................ 503 Controlling Electrical Hazards...................................................................504 Exposed Electrical Parts..........................................................................504 Overhead Power Lines............................................................................504 Inadequate Wiring...................................................................................504 Defective or Damaged Cords and Wires.............................................. 505 Use of Flexible Cords............................................................................... 505 Grounding................................................................................................. 505 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters......................................................... 506 Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor Program........................ 506 xxiv Contents Overloaded Circuits................................................................................. 507 Safety-Related Work Practices................................................................ 507 Planning.................................................................................................... 507 Training..................................................................................................... 507 Summary...................................................................................................508 Static Electricity.............................................................................................508 Bonding and Grounding......................................................................... 509 Humidification......................................................................................... 509 Static Controllers (Collectors)................................................................. 510 Additives................................................................................................... 510 Scaffolds......................................................................................................... 510 Fall Hazards.............................................................................................. 511 Falling Object (Struck by) Protection.................................................... 511 Elements of Safe Scaffold Construction................................................ 511 Training Requirements........................................................................... 513 Fall Protection and Prevention in Construction...................................... 513 Physics of a Fall........................................................................................ 513 Fall Prevention and Protection............................................................... 514 Guardrails (29 CFR 1926.502)............................................................. 514 Positioning Device System (29 CFR 1926.502(e))............................. 515 Warning Line Systems (29 CFR 1926.502(f)).................................... 516 Controlled Access Zone System (29 CFR 1926.502(g)).................... 517 Safety Monitoring System (29 CFR 1926.502(h))............................. 518 Personal Fall Arrest System (29 CFR 1926.502(d))........................... 518 Safety Net Systems (29 CFR 1926.502(c)).......................................... 520 Cranes and Derrick Safety (29 CFR 1926.550)........................................... 521 Welding, Cutting, and Brazing (29 CFR 1926.350–353)........................... 522 Oxygen-Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting............................................... 523 Fuel Gas and Oxygen Manifolds (29 CFR 1926.350(e))................... 524 Hoses (29 CFR 1926.350(f))................................................................. 525 Torches (29 CFR 1926.350(g)).............................................................. 525 Regulators and Gauges (29 CFR 1926.350(h)).................................. 525 Oil and Grease Hazards (29 CFR 1926.350(i)).................................. 525 Arc Welding and Cutting....................................................................... 525 Manual Electrode Holders (29 CFR 1926.351(a)).............................. 526 Welding Cables and Connectors (29 CFR 1926.351(b))................... 526 Ground Returns and Machine Grounding (29 CFR 1926.351(c))......................................................................... 526 Resistance Welding.................................................................................. 526 Fire Prevention (29 CFR 1926.352)..................................................... 527 Ventilation and Protection in Welding, Cutting, and Heating (29 CFR 1926.353)................................................................................. 527 Hand and Power Tool Safety (29 CFR 1910 Subpart P)............................ 528 Abrasive Grinders (29 CFR 1910.243)..................................................... 529 Wheel Testing...................................................................................... 529 Contents xxv The Ring Test....................................................................................... 529 The Vibration Test............................................................................... 530 Portable Circular Saws (29 CFR 1910.243)............................................. 530 Compressed Air Systems (29 CFR 1910.242)......................................... 531 Housekeeping (29 CFR 1926.25).................................................................. 532 Key Information to Remember on Construction Safety......................... 533 References......................................................................................................534 24. Risk Management........................................................................................ 535 Definitions..................................................................................................... 535 Risk Management Process........................................................................... 535 Hazard Identification.............................................................................. 536 Hazard Assessment................................................................................. 537 Probability............................................................................................ 537 Severity................................................................................................. 538 Risk Assessment Scenario...................................................................... 539 Controls Development and Decision Making.....................................540 Types of Controls................................................................................. 541 Criteria for Controls............................................................................ 541 Decision Making.................................................................................543 Implement Controls.................................................................................543 Supervise and Evaluate...........................................................................543 Key Information to Remember on Risk Management............................543 References......................................................................................................544 25. Hazardous Materials Management.........................................................545 Hazardous Materials....................................................................................545 Hazardous Waste..........................................................................................545 Basic Chemistry Review..............................................................................546 Solid...........................................................................................................546 Liquid.........................................................................................................546 Gas..............................................................................................................546 Plasma........................................................................................................ 547 Atomic Mass............................................................................................. 547 Atoms......................................................................................................... 547 Definitions Related to Matter...................................................................... 547 Periodic Table of the Elements....................................................................548 Measurements of Concentrations...............................................................548 Hazardous Materials/Hazardous Waste Properties...............................548 Physical Hazards.......................................................................................... 549 Engulfment............................................................................................... 549 Overpressurization.................................................................................. 549 Other Physical Safety Hazards.............................................................. 549 Fires and Explosions................................................................................ 550 Corrosion................................................................................................... 550 xxvi Contents Thermal Decomposition......................................................................... 550 Water-Reactive Material Hazards.......................................................... 551 Health Hazards Associated with Hazardous Materials......................... 551 Key Regulations Governing Hazardous Materials and Hazardous Wastes............................................................................................................. 552 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)................................ 552 Hazardous Waste Generators............................................................ 552 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980)................................................................................... 553 Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act of 1986................ 553 Toxic Substances Control Act (1976)...................................................... 554 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986).... 554 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1972)............... 554 Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act (1986)............................. 555 Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)....................... 555 Classification of Hazardous Materials....................................................... 556 Hazardous Waste Operations..................................................................... 556 Planning and Organization.................................................................... 556 Training..................................................................................................... 556 Medical Program...................................................................................... 560 Site Characterization............................................................................... 560 Air Monitoring......................................................................................... 560 Personal Protective Equipment.............................................................. 561 Site Control................................................................................................ 561 Decontamination...................................................................................... 561 Key Information to Remember on Hazardous Materials Management.................................................................................................. 561 References...................................................................................................... 563 26. Radiation Safety.......................................................................................... 565 Ionizing Radiation........................................................................................ 565 Particle Radiation..................................................................................... 565 Alpha (α) Radiation............................................................................. 565 Beta (β) Radiation................................................................................ 566 Neutron (n) Radiation......................................................................... 566 Electromagnetic Radiation..................................................................... 566 Gamma (γ) Radiation.......................................................................... 566 X-rays..................................................................................................... 567 Radiation Basics....................................................................................... 567 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation................................................ 567 General.................................................................................................. 567 Acute Somatic Effects......................................................................... 568 Delayed Somatic Effects..................................................................... 568 Critical Organs.................................................................................... 568 Description of Ionizing Radiation Units............................................... 568 Contents xxvii Types of Radioactive Decay.................................................................... 569 Calculating Radioactive Decay......................................................... 570 Radioactive Half-Life............................................................................... 570 Radiation Control Methods.................................................................... 573 Time....................................................................................................... 573 Distance................................................................................................ 573 Source Strength for Gamma (γ) Radiation....................................... 574 Shielding....................................