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 MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Western and Eastern Thought PART 1  VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS SOCRATES PLATO ST. AUGUSTINE RENE DESCARTES JOHN LOCKE  SOCRATES “The unexamined life is not worth...

 MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Western and Eastern Thought PART 1  VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS SOCRATES PLATO ST. AUGUSTINE RENE DESCARTES JOHN LOCKE  SOCRATES “The unexamined life is not worth living.”  SOCRATES ▪ He was a Greek philosopher and one of the very few individuals who shaped Western thought. ▪ Known for his method of inquiry in testing an idea called the Socratic Method, whereby an idea was tested by asking a series of questions to determine underlying beliefs and the extent of knowledge to guide the person toward better understanding (Maxwell, 2015). ▪ He digresses somewhat into an exploration of knowledge and belief. Essentially, he argues that belief may be true or false, but knowledge, by definition must be true, or else it is not knowledge.  Some of Socrates’ ideas were: ▪ The soul is immortal. ▪ The care of the soul is the task of philosophy. ▪ Virtue is necessary to attain happiness ▪ Believed that philosophy had a very important role to play in the lives of the people. One of his most-quoted phrases is, “The unexamined life is not worth living.” ▪ He added that self-knowledge or the examination of one’s self, as well as the question about how one ought to live one’s life, are very important concerns because only by knowing yourself can you hope to improve your life (Rappe, 1995). ▪ He believed that a person should consciously contemplate, turn your gaze inward, and analyze the true nature and values that are guiding your life. ▪ He added self-knowledge would open your eyes to your true nature; which contrary to pop culture, is not about what you own, how many “likes” you get in your social media posts, or how successful you are in your career. In fact, your real self is not even your body. According to Socrates, the state of your inner being (soul/self) determines the quality of your life. ▪ We need to take care of our souls in order to attain good life, because it can only be attained through acquisition of knowledge, wisdom and virtue.  Socrates said existence is of two kinds: The visible (body) existence changes while the invisible (soul) existence remains constant.  PLATO “Good actions give strength to ourselves and inspire good actions in others.”  PLATO ▪ He is best known for his Theory of Forms and Theory of Senses that asserted the physical world is not really the “real” world because the ultimate reality exists beyond the physical world. THEORY OF FORMS (Ideas) ▪ Eternal, unchanging, and perfect. ▪ Exist beyond the empirical world. ▪ Examples: Beauty, Justice, Goodness. THEORY OF SENSES ▪ Imperfect, changing, and transient. ▪ Subject to sensory limitations and illusions. ▪ Examples: Physical objects, colors, sounds. ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE ▪ He authored the renowned “La Republicca” (The Republic) in which he insinuated that justice in the human person can only be attained if the three parts of the soul (tripartite self/soul) are working harmoniously with one another. ▪ Believed that happiness can be achieved by people who consistently ensure the reason is the control of their spirits and desires.  Rational Soul enables us to think, reflect, analyze, and other cognitive functions. Spirited Soul SOUL enables us to experience joy, happiness, sadness, anger, etc. Appetitive Soul enables us to experience physical pain, hunger, thirst, and other physical wants.  SAINT AUGUSTINE “My heart is restless until it rests in You”  SAINT AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO ▪ is one of the Latin Fathers of the Church, one of the Doctors of the Church, and one of the most significant Christian thinkers. ▪ His philosophical approach to Christian thinking is the most influential theological system. His written works are among the foundations of medieval and modern Christian thought He wrote two insightful works, which still exists until today  St. Augustine's Philosophy basically followed the dualism framework of Plato. Plato's world of ideas become the city of God for St. Augustine while Plato's world of the senses is the city of man for St. Augustine.  CITY OF GOD THEORY OF FORMS (Ideas) ▪ Ruled by divine justice and righteousness. ▪ Eternal, unchanging, and perfect. ▪ Cheers the spirits of the righteous made perfect. ▪ Exist beyond the empirical world. CITY OF MAN ▪ Examples: Beauty, Justice, Goodness. ▪ Characterized by impermanence, change, and THEORY OF SENSES the pursuit of worldly desires. ▪ Imperfect, changing, and transient. ▪ Founded on self-love, ambition, and expediency. ▪ Subject to sensory limitations and illusions. ▪ Focus is on individual and collective human ▪ Examples: Physical objects, colors, sounds. interests, often at the expense of higher spiritual values. ▪ Saint Augustine was deeply influenced by Plato’s ideas. Not surprisingly, he adopted Plato’s view that the “self ” is an immaterial (but rational) soul. Giving the Theory of Forms a Christian perspective, Augustine asserted that these Forms were concepts existing within the perfect and eternal God (CUA Press, 1982) where the soul belonged. ▪ Saint Augustine held that the soul held the Truth and was capable of scientific thinking. Saint Augustine’s concept of the “self ” was an inner, immaterial “I” that had self-knowledge and self- awareness. ▪ He believed that the human being was both a soul and body, and the body possessed senses, such as imagination, memory, reason, and mind through which the soul experienced the world. ▪ He also reasoned that human beings through the senses could sense the material, temporal objects as we interacted with the material world; the immaterial but intelligible (def. able to be understood only by the intellect, not by the senses) God would only be clear or obvious to the mind if one tune into his/her immaterial self/soul. ▪ Saint Augustine believed that the human being who is both soul and body is meant to tend to higher, divine, and heavenly matters because of his/her our capacity to ascend and comprehend truths through the mind. He connected the ascension of the soul with his assertion that everything related to the physical world belongs to the physical body, and if a person concerns himself/herself with this physical world then he/she will not be any different from animals. ▪ Augustine's philosophy of the self is deeply theological, centered on the relationship between the self and God. The self is understood as a created being, fundamentally oriented towards God but struggling with sin. ▪ The journey of the self involves introspection, memory, and the transformative power of divine grace, ultimately leading to a renewed self in communion with God and others.  MEMENTO MORI “REMEMBER DEATH” RENÉ DESCARTES “COGITO ERGO SUM”  RENÉ DESCARTES ▪ He was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. He is considered the father of modern Western philosophy. ▪ Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to describe, predict, and understand natural phenomena based on observational and empirical evidence (Bertrand, 2004; Grosholz, 1991). ▪ Descartes proposed that doubt was a principal tool of disciplined inquiry. His method was called hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt, also sometimes referred to as methodological skepticism. ▪ It is a systematic process of being skeptical about the truth of one’s beliefs in order to determine which beliefs could be ascertained as true (Roger, 1994; Philosophy Glossary University of Houston). ▪ He asserted that everything perceived by the senses could not be used as proof of existence because human senses could be fooled. ▪ He added that there was only one thing we could be sure of in this world, and that was everything could be doubted. In turn, by doubting his own existence, Descartes proved that there is a thinking entity that is doing the act of doubting.  The mind houses our understanding, intellect, and passion while the body is just a shape that has different sizes that showcases motion. Bodies do not have an understanding, and minds do not have sizes, shapes, and even movements. We exist We think because because we we think exist JOHN LOCKE “The mind is a blank slate”  JOHN LOCKE ▪ was a philosopher and physician and was one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers. The Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the ideas in Europe during the 18th century. ▪ Locke believed that the “self ” is identified with consciousness and this “self ” consists of sameness of consciousness. This is usually interpreted to mean that the “self ” consists of memory; that the person existing now is the same person yesterday because he/she remembers the thoughts, experiences, or actions of the earlier self (Natsoulas, 1994; Fuchs, 2017). ▪ The human mind, at birth, is “tabula rasa” or a blank slate. ▪ Our memories are the source of our identity. It is not affected by physical changes such as age, height, hair loss, blindness, or facial rejuvenation. ▪ A person will always retain the same identity regardless of how much time passes.  No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience. PART 2 VARIOUS PHILOSOPHERS “All knowledge is derived from human senses.”  BUNDLE THEORY OF THE SELF ▪ David Hume argued that the self is not a singular, unchanging entity but rather a collection (or "bundle") of different perceptions, thoughts, and experiences that are constantly changing. ▪ He added that when we try to introspect and find the self, all we see are fleeting sensations, emotions, and ideas, not a fixed, underlying self. Hume divided the mind’s perceptions into two groups stating that the difference between the two “consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike upon the mind” Impressions: These are the perceptions that are the most strong. They enter the senses with most force. These are directly experienced; they result from inward and outward sentiments. Ideas: These are the less forcible and less lively counterparts of impressions. These are mechanisms that copy and reproduce sense data formulated based upon the previously perceived impressions. Example: Imagine a movie made up of various scenes and images. Just like the movie is a collection of different frames, Hume would argue that what we call the "self" is just a collection of different thoughts, feelings, and perceptions over time. There is no core "self" beyond these experiences.  REASON is the final authority of morality. Morality is achieved only when there is absence of war because of the result of enlightenment.  Transcendental Unity of Apperception ▪ Kant believed that the self is more than just a collection of experiences. He argued that there is a necessary organizing principle, which he called the "transcendental self" or "transcendental unity of apperception." ▪ This is the part of the mind that organizes experiences into a coherent narrative, allowing us to perceive the world and ourselves as unified and continuous over time.  INNER SELF According to Kant, we all have an inner self. It comprises two essential aspects: ▪ Psychological State: This includes our thoughts, emotions, memories, and rational processes. It’s the part of us that thinks, reflects, and reasons. ▪ Rational Intellect: Our capacity for understanding, reasoning, and making judgments resides in the inner self. The inner self allows us to engage in self- awareness, introspection, and reflective thinking. It’s where our consciousness operates.  OUTER SELF The outer self complements the inner self. It consists of: ▪ Senses: Our sensory experiences—seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling—are part of the outer self. ▪ Physical World: The outer self interacts with the external environment. It’s the part of us that perceives the world through our senses. The outer self provides us with empirical data about the world. It’s how we experience and interact with our surroundings.  APPERCEPTION refers to the process by which we become conscious of our mental experiences. It involves actively integrating new information (perceptions, thoughts, or ideas) with our existing knowledge. Imagine you’re learning a new language. When you encounter a new word, your mind automatically connects it to words you already know. This mental assimilation—the recognition and integration of the new word into your existing mental framework—is apperception. Example: Think of a notebook with scattered, random notes. Kant’s self is like a person who organizes those notes into a structured story, giving them meaning and coherence. The "self" is this organizing principle that makes sense of all our experiences. “Wish fulfillment is the road to the unconscious.” Psychoanalytic Theory of the Self ▪ Freud believed that our psychological problems and behaviors are deeply rooted in the unconscious mind. ▪ This hidden realm contains thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories that influence us without our conscious awareness. Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the proposed existence of the unconscious as: ▪ A repository for traumatic repressed memories; and ▪ The source of anxiety-provoking drives that is socially or ethically unacceptable to the individual.  LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS Freud believed that our minds operate at three distinct levels, each influencing our thoughts, feelings, and behavior: ▪ The conscious mind contains everything we are currently aware of—our thoughts, perceptions, and feelings in the present moment. ▪ The preconscious mind includes thoughts, memories, and knowledge that are not immediately in our awareness but can be easily brought to consciousness. ▪ The unconscious mind is like an iceberg—the vast, hidden part beneath the waterline. It contains feelings, desires, fears, and memories that we’re not consciously aware of.  PROVINCES OF THE MIND ▪ The id is the primal, instinctual part of our personality. It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification for our desires, wants, and needs. ▪ The ego is the organized, realistic part of our personality. It acts as the mediator between the id and the external world. The ego operates on the reality principle. ▪ The superego represents our internalized moral compass. It develops through identification with parental figures and societal norms. It operates on the moralistic principle.  The ego constantly juggles the demands of the id (instant gratification) and the superego (morality). It seeks a balance—meeting basic needs while adhering to social norms. Sometimes, the ego allows for a “practicable satisfaction” of id urges, finding compromises that maintain stability. Example: Imagine a person who is tempted to eat a whole cake (id), knows it’s not a good idea for their health (superego), and decides to eat just one slice (ego). The self, according to Freud, is a dynamic interaction between these conflicting forces. “I act, therefore I am”  THE SELF AS BEHAVIOR ▪ Ryle rejected the idea that the mind is a separate, immaterial entity distinct from the body. He famously criticized what he called the “ghost in the machine.” ▪ According to Ryle, our sense of self arises from our observable behaviors and actions. In other words, who we are is not hidden inside us but is evident in how we behave in the world. ▪ His philosophy encourages us to focus on actions, language, and observable behaviors when understanding the self. Our identity isn’t a mysterious inner essence—it’s the sum of what we do and how we interact with the world.  Category Mistake ▪ Ryle introduced the concept of a “category mistake.” This occurs when we mistakenly treat mental states as if they were separate from physical behaviors. ▪ For example, consider a visitor to a university who asks to see the “university.” The mistake lies in assuming that the university is a separate thing, like a building, rather than an institution composed of various activities, people, and structures. Similarly, Ryle argued that the mind is not a separate entity but a collection of behaviors and mental processes. Example: Think of a chess player. Ryle would argue that instead of searching for a “chess-playing self ” inside the person, we should look at their actual moves and strategies during the game. The self is defined by what we do, not some inner substance.  PAUL CHURCHLAND “The physical brain and NOT the imaginary mind gives us our sense of self ”  ELIMINATIVE MATERIALISM ▪ Churchland is known for his view that many common-sense concepts of psychology, like beliefs and desires, will eventually be replaced by more accurate neuroscientific explanations. ▪ He argues that what we think of as the self (with its beliefs, desires, and intentions) is just a way of talking about brain states and processes, and in the future, these ideas will be eliminated in favor of scientific understandings of the brain.  The Brain as the Source of Self ▪ For Churchland, the self emerges from the physical brain. If the brain ceases to function, so does the self. ▪ Unlike Descartes’ dualism (which posits a mind separate from the body), Churchland emphasizes that our sense of self arises directly from neural processes. Example: Consider how ancient people might have talked about "spirits" causing illness. Churchland suggests that our current talk of the "self" will similarly be replaced by talk about specific brain states and neural processes. For example, instead of saying "I feel anxious," we might describe particular neural activations in the brain.  MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY “Physical body is an important part of the self ”  Subjectivity and the Lived Body ▪ Merleau-Ponty believed that our sense of self is intimately tied to our physical bodies and our interactions with the world. ▪ Unlike some other philosophical perspectives, which focus solely on reason or mental perception, Merleau-Ponty emphasized the lived human body. This body is not an isolated entity; it relates to the world as an embodied subject. ▪ In other words, our self doesn’t exist in a vacuum—it emerges from our bodily experiences, sensations, and movements.  Embodiment and Perception ▪ Merleau-Ponty understood perception as an ongoing dialogue between our lived body and the world we perceive. ▪ When we see, touch, or move, our body actively participates in shaping our understanding of reality. ▪ Our senses are not passive receptors; they engage with the environment, and our self-awareness arises from this dynamic interaction. Example: Imagine you stub your toe against a piece of furniture. The immediate pain is not just a mental experience; it’s deeply embodied. your self-awareness of that pain isn’t detached from your body. Instead, it’s inseparable from the way your nerves, muscles, and skin respond. The pain is not merely an abstract concept; it’s a lived bodily experience that shapes your perception of the world in that moment.  MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Western and Eastern Thought “Understanding of the self only arises in relationship, in watching yourself in relationship to people, ideas, and things; to trees, the earth, and the world around you and within you. Relationship is the mirror in which the self is revealed. Without self-knowledge there is no basis for right thought and action.” ― Jiddu Krishnamurti  The sociological perspective of the self examines how social structures, norms, and interactions shape an individual's identity. How does society influence self-identity?  The Self as a Product of Society ▪The self is influenced by societal norms, values, and beliefs (Elwell, 2003). ▪Social identity is formed through interaction with society.  Modernity and Self-Identity Key Changes in Modern Society: ▪ Transition from survival-based identity in pre-modern societies to individualism in modern societies. ▪ Increased freedom in personal choices such as residence, career, and relationships. Impact on Self-Identity: ▪ Decreased stability and traditional support systems. ▪ Emphasis on individualism and self- development. Anthony Giddens, in his 1991 work "The Consequences of Modernity," explores the defining characteristics of modernity. He identifies four key elements: ▪ Industrialism refers to the large-scale production of goods through mechanization and the use of advanced technologies. It marks a shift from agrarian societies to industrialized ones, where the economy is driven by manufacturing and industry. Industrialism brings about profound changes in social structure, labor, and urbanization. ▪ Capitalism, according to Giddens, is the economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, profit-driven enterprises, and market competition. It involves the accumulation of capital, investment in business ventures, and a focus on maximizing profits. ▪ Giddens discusses institutions of surveillance as mechanisms through which modern states and organizations monitor and regulate behavior. Surveillance involves the systematic collection of information to control and influence social and economic activities. It is closely linked to the development of the modern state and bureaucratic administration. ▪ Dynamism in modernity refers to the constant change and innovation that characterizes modern societies. Giddens highlights how modernity is marked by a continuous state of transformation, driven by technological advancements, economic shifts, and social changes. This dynamism often creates uncertainty and instability but also fosters progress.  GEORG SIMMEL SOCIAL GROUPS SOCIAL ▪ Defined as two or more NETWORKS people sharing common characteristics and ▪ Connections between identifying with each other. individuals based on relationships like ▪ Can either be an organic blood relations, group or rational group. friendship, or shared interests. ▪ Can have organic motivation or rational motivation  Two Sides of the Self: "I" and "Me" “Me” The learned behaviors, attitudes, “I” and expectations from society. The spontaneous, unsocialized Represents social aspect of the self. control and adherence to societal Represents norms. individual responses, The socialized part of the person impulses, and creativity. Considers the “generalized other” Stages of Self-Development  PREPARATORY STAGE (Imitation Stage) ▪ In this early stage, typically from birth to around age 2, children mimic or imitate the actions and words of those around them without understanding the meanings. They do not yet have a developed sense of self and are just beginning to learn basic communication and social behaviors by copying others. ▪ A toddler may wave their hand to say "goodbye" after seeing an adult do it, even if they don’t understand the social context or meaning behind the gesture.  PLAY STAGE ▪ Occurring roughly between ages 2 and 6, in the play stage, children start to take on and act out roles of specific people they are familiar with, such as parents, teachers, or superheroes. This stage is crucial for developing the ability to understand others' perspectives. However, they can only take on one role at a time and lack the ability to see multiple viewpoints simultaneously. ▪ A child might pretend to be a doctor, imitating actions like checking a patient’s temperature or giving an injection, using their imagination to adopt the perspective of a doctor.  GAME STAGE ▪ Beginning around age 7, in the game stage, children learn to take on multiple roles simultaneously and understand the expectations of others in more complex group settings. They grasp the concept of the "generalized other," which means they start to see themselves from the perspective of the larger community or society, not just specific individuals. ▪ When playing a team sport like soccer, a child understands not only their role as a player but also the roles of their teammates, the coach, and the referee, recognizing how each role contributes to the game as a whole.  CHARLES HORTON COOLEY ▪ Proponent of the Looking Glass Self theory ▪ He suggested that the people whom a person interacts with becomes a mirror, in which he or she views himself or herself. “I am not who you think I am; I am not who I think I am; I am who I think you think I am”  MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Western and Eastern Thought  ▪ According to the American Psychological Association, psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. ▪ Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes. GREEK WORDS Psyche – mind ; logos - study  Psychology can help you better understand yourself. The insights you gain into motivations, thought processes, the influences of groups you interact with and many other aspects of human behavior will all help you gain a better understanding of Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development  Constructivist Approach to Learning ▪ Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world. Rather than passively absorbing information, they act as “little scientists,” exploring and making sense of their environment. ▪ This means that children build their knowledge through their own experiences, interactions, and mental processes. SCHEMAS ▪ are mental frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information. ▪ As children grow and learn, their schemas become more numerous and sophisticated, allowing for a more complex understanding of the world.  SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (Birth to 18-24 months): ▪ During this stage, infants develop basic motor skills and learn to perceive and interact with their environment through physical sensations and body coordination. ▪ A major milestone in this stage is the development of object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2 to 7 years old) ▪ Children in this stage engage in symbolic play. They use symbols (such as words and images) to represent objects and ideas. ▪ However, their thinking is still egocentric, meaning they struggle to see things from others’ perspectives. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 to 11 years) ▪ Logical thought emerges during this stage. Children can perform mental operations on concrete objects and understand concepts like conservation (e.g., understanding that the amount of liquid remains the same even if poured into a different-shaped container) ▪ They can also learn reversibility (the ability to understand that actions or operations can be reversed, allowing the object or situation to return to its original state.  Formal Operational Stage (12 and up) ▪ In this stage, adolescents develop scientific reasoning and abstract thinking. ▪ They can consider hypothetical situations, engage in deductive reasoning, and explore complex ideas. William James’ I and Me Selves  Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Psychology Actualizing tendency - it represents the natural inclination to move toward growth, autonomy, and self-improvement. True and False Selves ▪ The True Self represents a person's authentic, spontaneous, and genuine self, which emerges when individuals are allowed to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and creativity. According to Winnicott, the true self develops in a nurturing environment where one feels safe and supported. ▪ When people feel accepted and valued for who they truly are, they can express their true self, leading to a sense of fulfillment, confidence, and autonomy. ▪ The False Self develops as a protective mechanism when individuals feel the need to conform to external pressures and expectations. This self is shaped by societal demands, where a person suppresses their authentic self to fit in or gain approval from others. The false self can lead to feelings of emptiness, alienation, and a lack of genuine identity. A young Filipino musician from the A student who dreams of becoming an provinces chooses to perform traditional artist or dancer but pursues a medical Filipino instruments like the kulintang or degree because of parental pressure is bandurria, instead of following the trend of exhibiting their false self. While they may Western pop music. This is an expression of achieve external success, they often feel their true self, as they are staying connected disconnected from their genuine passions to their roots and authentic interests. and interests.  MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Western and Eastern Thought  Understanding the Self Through Culture What is Anthropology? ▪ The study of human beings, past and present, with a focus on cultural, social, and biological perspectives. ▪ It explores how humans evolve, differ, and understand themselves. ▪ The goal of this lesson is to understand the self in relation to culture and society. ▪ The self is shaped by both biological (nature) and cultural (nurture) processes. ▪ The self consists of physical, psychological, and social components. ▪ The self is both implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious), continuously shaped by experiences (Joseph LeDoux). Explicit Culture: it consists of observable or tangible elements that we can easily identify, such as art, language, cuisine, clothing, rituals, and social conventions. It represents the visible part of the ‘cultural iceberg,’ elements that are immediately discernible upon encountering a new culture. Implicit Culture: it refers to the less tangible, more deeply ingrained elements of a culture, including beliefs, values, attitudes, assumptions, and perceptions. These components are often subconscious, forming the larger, submerged part of the ‘cultural iceberg.’ These elements are typically more challenging to identify but profoundly influence how individuals think, behave, and perceive the world. Explicit Culture Implicit Culture The tangible, observable aspectsThe intangible, less visible Definition of a culture elements of a culture Beliefs, Values, Attitudes, Examples Language, Art, Food, Clothing Assumptions Requires more time and deeper Visibility Immediately discernible interaction to understand  The Self as a Cultural Representation Cultural Shaping of the Self: ▪ People construct different self- representations based on cultural norms and personal memories. Example in the Philippines: ▪ Filipinos have self-concepts shaped by strong family ties and respect for elders (e.g., “pagmamano” as a sign of respect). The Self Embedded in Culture Cultural Influence on the Self: Self-construals differ: Independent vs. Interdependent. Independent self: Emphasized in individualistic cultures (e.g., North America, Europe). Interdependent self: Emphasized in collectivist cultures (e.g., Philippines, East Asia). Example in the Philippines: Filipino bayanihan spirit: A collectivist value of helping others within the community.  Relationships and Culture Cultural Influence on Relationships: ▪ Relationships can be seen as voluntary or duty-based. Example in the Philippines: ▪ Strong family orientation, often leading to extended families living together. Arranged marriages were once common but are now less prevalent, though family approval in relationships is still highly regarded. Personality Traits and Culture Cultural Impact on Traits: ▪ Cultures value different traits such as humility, assertiveness, and respect. Example in the Philippines: ▪ Hiya (sense of shame) and pakikisama (smooth interpersonal relations) shape social interactions, promoting group harmony and respect for others.  Achievement and Culture Cultural Influence on Achievement: ▪ Cultures define success differently, either focusing on individual or collective accomplishments. Example in the Philippines: ▪ Academic and professional success is often tied to family pride. Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) send remittances to support their families, a collective achievement. Expressing Emotions Cultural Expression of Emotions: ▪ Some cultures encourage open emotional expression, while others promote emotional restraint. Example in the Philippines: ▪ Filipinos often express emotions through storytelling and humor (e.g., hugot lines), yet may avoid open confrontation to maintain harmony.  How do you see your own "self" shaped by Filipino culture?  MODULE CONTENTS Philosophical Perspective Sociological Perspective Anthropological Perspective Psychological Perspective Eastern Thought The Self in Eastern Thought Lao Tzu and Taoism Lao Tzu, also known as Laozi, is a foundational figure in Taoism, a Chinese philosophy and spiritual tradition. His key work, the Tao Te Ching, contains teachings about the nature of reality, ethics, and governance. Central to Lao Tzu’s philosophy is the concept of the Tao (or Dao), which can be translated as "the Way" or "the Path." The Tao is the fundamental principle that governs all life and the universe, encouraging a life of balance, harmony, and simplicity.  The Tao and Wu Wei (Non-action) Lao Tzu teaches that the Tao is a natural force that permeates all things. Humans are at their best when they align themselves with the Tao. One way to do this is through Wu Wei, which is often translated as "non- action" or "effortless action." It doesn’t mean inaction but rather letting things flow naturally and not forcing outcomes. Example: In the Philippines, the concept of bahala na (a kind of acceptance or letting go) can reflect aspects of Wu Wei. Though sometimes perceived as fatalism, bahala na can also be a form of trust in the natural flow of events, accepting what comes without over-striving or over-controlling, similar to how Lao Tzu promotes living in accordance with the Tao. For instance, in Filipino communities affected by typhoons, there is often a strong sense of communal resilience and acceptance of nature’s power. While efforts are made to prepare and recover, there is also an understanding that not everything can be controlled—an attitude that resonates with the Taoist philosophy of working with, rather than against, the forces of nature.  Simplicity and Humility Lao Tzu advocates for simplicity, both in living and in thought. He believes that human ambition, materialism, and striving for power create discord. A simple, humble life, in alignment with nature, leads to inner peace and balance. Example: In many rural Filipino communities, there is a tradition of living modestly and relying on natural resources. These communities prioritize living in harmony with the land and environment, reflecting the Taoist appreciation for simplicity.  Softness and Yielding Lao Tzu often uses the metaphor of water to explain his philosophy. Water is soft, yet it can overcome the hardest rock. He encourages people to adopt this kind of flexibility and yielding, as it allows one to adapt to circumstances and persevere.  Leadership and Governance Lao Tzu’s views on leadership emphasize leading without force. The best leaders, according to Lao Tzu, lead by example and are almost invisible, allowing people to act freely and develop naturally. He warns against heavy-handed or forceful leadership, as it leads to resistance and conflict.  Detachment and Contentment Lao Tzu promotes the idea of detachment—releasing desires and attachments to outcomes. He believes that much of human suffering comes from wanting more and striving for things outside of our control. Contentment with what one has and being present in the moment are essential to finding peace. Example: The Filipino attitude of masaya kahit simple ("happy with the simple things") is an example of Lao Tzu's call for contentment and detachment from material desires. Many Filipinos find joy in simple moments, like spending time with family, enjoying meals together, or taking pleasure in community celebrations. This ability to find contentment amidst hardships, without needing excess material wealth, aligns with Taoist values. Confucius Confucius, or Kong Fuzi, was a Chinese philosopher whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asian cultures and philosophies. His philosophy, often referred to as Confucianism, is centered on morality, family, social harmony, and governance. Confucius focused on human relationships and the cultivation of virtues, believing that society would thrive if individuals embodied respect, integrity, and responsibility. Ren (Humaneness or Benevolence) Ren is the central concept in Confucianism, often translated as humaneness, kindness, or benevolence. Confucius taught that individuals should act with compassion and empathy toward others. He believed that relationships are the core of human existence, and treating others with kindness leads to social harmony. Example: The concept of kapwa, a Filipino value that emphasizes shared identity and community, resonates with Confucian Ren. In Filipino culture, pakikisama (smooth interpersonal relationships) is essential, where individuals prioritize the well-being of others, especially within families and communities. For example, the practice of sharing food with neighbors, or helping during life events like weddings and funerals, reflects the idea of Ren. Filipinos, like Confucius' ideal society, are taught to be compassionate and maintain harmonious relationships by caring for those around them.  Filial Piety (Respect for Parents and Ancestors) Confucius emphasized the importance of filial piety (xiao), which involves respect for one’s parents, elders, and ancestors. This respect is seen as the foundation of a well-ordered society. Confucius believed that the family is the basic unit of society, and that maintaining respect within the family would lead to broader social harmony. Example: the strong sense of obligation that Filipino children feel toward their parents, particularly the cultural expectation to provide for them financially in old age, mirrors Confucius’ belief in the duty of children to support and honor their parents. Li (Ritual and Proper Conduct) refers to the rites, rituals, and proper conduct that regulate social behavior. Confucius believed that rituals were essential not only for religious purposes but also for maintaining social order and respect. He stressed that proper behavior according to social roles leads to stability and respect within society. Example: The concept of utang na loob (debt of gratitude), where a person acknowledges and repays a favor or kindness, can also be seen as a reflection of Li. It is a social contract that binds relationships and maintains harmony through proper acknowledgment of favors and help.  The Importance of Education Confucius valued education as the key to personal and moral development. He believed that education should cultivate virtues and wisdom, allowing individuals to become better citizens and contribute positively to society. Education, in Confucianism, is not just about acquiring knowledge but also about shaping moral character. Example: Many Filipino families invest heavily in their children’s schooling, with the hope that it will improve not just their own lives but the lives of the entire family. The pursuit of higher education abroad, or the long-standing cultural appreciation for teachers, reflects the Confucian view that education is a vital tool for cultivating wisdom and societal leadership. The Ideal of the Junzi (Gentleman or Superior Person) Confucius taught that individuals should strive to become a junzi, or "superior person," who embodies the virtues of Ren, Li, and wisdom. The junzi is characterized by moral integrity, self-discipline, and a sense of responsibility toward others. Confucius contrasted the junzi with the xiaoren (small or petty person), who is self-serving and lacks moral depth. Example: In modern-day Philippine politics, however, the call for "good governance" echoes the Confucian desire for leaders to be guided by principles and virtues, rather than self-interest. Filipinos' criticism of corrupt and self-serving leaders reflects the societal desire for junzi-like leadership.  Harmony through Social Hierarchies Confucius believed that society operates best when everyone understands their roles and duties within a defined hierarchy. He saw relationships in terms of a hierarchical structure, where respect is due upward (from children to parents, from subjects to rulers) and benevolence flows downward (from parents to children, from rulers to subjects). Example: In the Philippines, hierarchical relationships are visible in family structures and workplaces. The importance of respecting authority figures—whether in the family, school, or workplace—aligns with Confucian social hierarchies. For instance, teachers and elders are highly respected, and there is a strong expectation of obedience and deference to those in positions of authority.  Sun Tzu and the Art of War Sun Tzu, a Chinese military strategist and philosopher, is best known for his work The Art of War, a treatise on military strategy, leadership, and tactics. While the book focuses on warfare, its principles have been applied to various fields such as business, politics, and personal development. Sun Tzu’s philosophy is based on the idea that strategy, intelligence, flexibility, and psychological insight are more critical to success than brute force. ▪ The Importance of Strategy and Planning ▪ Knowing the Enemy and Knowing Yourself ▪ Flexibility and Adaptability ▪ Deception and Psychological Warfare ▪ Effective Leadership ▪ Choosing Your Battles