Psychology Past Paper PDF

Unit 1: History of Psychology/Research Methods and Biological Basis of Behavior History and Research Methods -Define psychology The science of mental processes and behavior -What are the 4 goals of psychologists? Describe behavior Predict behavior Explain behavior Control / change behavior -Why i...

Unit 1: History of Psychology/Research Methods and Biological Basis of Behavior History and Research Methods -Define psychology The science of mental processes and behavior -What are the 4 goals of psychologists? Describe behavior Predict behavior Explain behavior Control / change behavior -Why is Psychology considered a science? It uses research and observation to make conclusions on how people behave and think -Know the main belief of each of the 7 modern perspectives Biological Approach - Human and animal behavior is seen as the direct result of events in the body. Behavioral Approach - Emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and the environments that determine those responses. Psychodynamic Approach (Sigmund Freud) - Mental and behavioral problems are caused by conflicts between acceptable behavior and unacceptable, unconscious desires. Humanistic Approach (Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow) - Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human nature as growth seeking experiences and motivations for behavior. Cognitive Approach - Study how we think, remember, store, and use information from our environment using a vast array of mental processes. Evolutionary Approach - Focus on natural selection, adaptation, and the evolution of behavior. Causes of behavior are attributed to those that lead to greater reproductive success Sociocultural Approach - Emphasizes social interactions and cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes– specifically, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and socioeconomic status as predictors of behavior. -What are the three main research methods used in Psychology? Descriptive Research – Describes behavior Correlational Research – Predicts behavior Experimental Research – Explains behavior -What is Naturalistic Observation? A research method where researchers observe and record people's behavior in their natural environment, without actively manipulating any variables, to study their typical actions and interactions as they occur in real-life situations -What does a correlation tell you? (know positive vs. negative correlation) The direction of the relationship between the two variables. ​ Positive Correlation - the two variables go up and down together; as one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. ​ Negative Correlation - the two variables go in opposite directions from each other; as one variable increases, the other one decreases and vice versa. -Can you determine causation from a correlation? Why not? Correlation does NOT necessarily equal causation, a correlation only indicates that two variables are related, but it does not prove that one variable causes the other to change -What does an experiment tell you? (how is it different from a correlational study?) CAN determine causal relationships, it helps us understand "why" something happens, not just "that" it happens, Causal relationships: Unlike correlational studies, experiments can demonstrate cause and effect by actively manipulating a variable -Independent vs. dependent variable - what are they and can you pick them out if I describe a study? - Independent Variable the “thing” you manipulate -​ Dependent Variable the “thing” you measure Biological Basis of Behavior -What is the nervous system and its function? The body’s electrochemical communication system. Uses electrical and chemical signals to allow the body's parts to communicate with each other -What is plasticity? The brain has a special capacity to change and adapt as we experience new things or encounter injuries. -Can you name the major divisions of the nervous system and their functions? Autonomic Nervous System Motor system that automatically, and involuntarily activates or inhibits internal organs of the body. - Affects pupils, blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate, bladder and bowels, blood flow, sweat, salivation, and hormones Somatic Nervous System Sensory and motor system that relays information about touch and pain to the central nervous system, and sends messages from the brain to the muscles to produce voluntary movement. The Three Major Divisions of the Brain -​ Hindbrain - Medulla (critical bodily functions), Cerebellum (walking and balance), Pons (arousal and sleep) -​ Midbrain - Tectum and Tegmentum (visual reflexes), Reticular formation (arousal) -​ Forebrain - The Limbic system, Thalamus, Basal Ganglia, Cerebral Cortex -Name the major function of the cerebellum, the hippocampus, the amygdala and the hypothalamus. - Cerebellum - Walking and balance - Amygdala - Fear and anxiety - Hippocampus - Learning and memory - Hypothalamus - Body regulation -Cerebral cortex: name the four lobes. Frontal Lobe - Motor cortex, Prefrontal cortex; Personality changes, impaired judgment, difficulty planning, impulsive behavior, problems with concentration Parietal Lobe - Somatosensory (perceive touch, pressure, pain, temperature, movement, vibration, and position) cortex; Sensory disturbances like numbness or tingling, difficulty with spatial awareness Temporal Lobe - Auditory cortex; Difficulty with auditory processing, impaired memory, problems recognizing faces, auditory hallucinations Occipital Lobe - Visual cortex; Visual disturbances like blurred vision, blind spots, inability to recognize objects visually -Right brain vs. left brain skills/abilities Right (Creative side) Spatial Location Faces Art/Music Creativity “Whole units” Left (logical side) Logic Mathematics Verbal skills Conscious awareness -What is the function of dendrites, soma, axon, and terminal buttons? What is a synapse? Neuron - Specialized cell of the nervous system that is used to detect information, transmit information, and affect muscles and glands. Dendrites - Receive messages from neighboring neurons Soma - The cell body Axon - conducts nerve impulse from the cell body to distant location. Terminal buttons - release chemical messages (neurotransmitters) onto neighboring dendrites. Synapse - the space between two neurons where they communicate with each other -What is an action potential? Action Potential - Brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon. Unit 2: Health Psychology and Human Development Health Psychology -What do health psychologists do? Focuses on maintaining health and preventing/treating illness. -Theory of Reasoned Action vs. Theory of Planned Behavior Theory of Reasoned Action Specific intentions - “promise to self to change” Positive attitudes - “feel good about the change” Approval of social group - “feel support from friends” Theory of Planned Behavior Specific intentions - “promise to self to change” Positive attitudes - “feel good about the change” Approval of social group - “feel support from friends” Perception of Control - “feel you have the power to change” -The Five Stages of Change Model: Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation/Determination, Action/Willpower, Maintenance 1.​ Precontemplation - ‘not ready to change” 2.​ Contemplation - “they need to change” 3.​ Preparation/Determination - “preparing to take action” 4.​ Action/Willpower - “enact a plan” 5.​ Maintenance - “success over time” -What is relapse? Returning back to a negative or harmful habit/behavior pattern -Three benefits of Social Support Tangible Assistance - the provision of financial assistance, material goods, or services Information - someone provides advice, guidance, or useful information to help another person solve a problem, make a decision, or understand a situation Emotional Support and Social Sharing - the act of providing care, love, empathy, trust, and encouragement to help someone manage stress -What are Stressors? Events that can cause stress -What is distress vs eustress? Distress - stress that is caused by unpleasant happenings. Eustress - stress that is caused by positive happenings. -Types of Stressors: Hassles, Major Life Events, Catastrophes Hassle - Minor inconveniences, daily hassles in life Major Life Events - Landmark events that change your life Catastrophes - Events that happen on a large scale -What are the typical sources of stress? Pressure - Demands and expectations are high from an outside source. Time is often a source of pressure. Personal Control - You feel that you are responsible for and in control of your own behaviors and choices. Frustration - Occurs when people are blocked from achieving their goal. Conflict - Having to choose between two options, where both options are good, bad, or both. -What is Learned Helplessness? After repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events, organisms will develop a tendency to remain in stressful situations, even when escape is possible. Learned Helpless leads to increased illness, depression, and anxiety disorders -Describe and explain the three types of conflicts Approach-approach conflict - Torn between two desirable goals. Avoidance-avoidance conflict - Torn between two undesirable goals. Approach-avoidance conflict - Choosing yes or no about a goal that has both good and bad things about it. -Three phases of the General Adaptation Syndrome (a response to stress) ARE Alarm - The initial symptoms the body experiences when under stress Resistance - After the initial shock of a stressful event and having a fight-or-flight response, the body begins to repair itself Exhaustion - The body has depleted its energy resources by continually trying but failing to recover from the initial alarm reaction stage Human Development -What does Nature vs. Nurture mean in regards to developmental research? How much do inherited characteristics (Nature) influence our development? vs. How much do environmental factors (Nurture) influence our development? -What is a cross-sectional design vs. a longitudinal design? Cross-sectional Designs - Several different age groups are studied at one time point. Longitudinal Designs - One group of participants are studied over a long period of time. -What are teratogens? Any agent that can cause a birth defect. Three Stages of Prenatal Development Zygote - First two weeks after conception Embryonic - Weeks 2 – 8 after conception Fetus - End of month 2 – 9 months after conception - Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Schemas - Skills and behaviors that allow child to interact with objects and others. Assimilation - Incorporating new information into existing schemas Accommodation - Changing a schema to new information -The 4 stages of Paiget’s Theory of Cognitive development Sensorimotor stage – Infants construct an understanding of the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. (From birth – 2 years old) Preoperational stage – Child develops abilities for symbolic thought and pretend play but not complex, logical thought. (From 2 - 7 years old) Concrete operational stage - Child uses operations and replaces heuristic strategies with logical reasoning skills in concrete situations. (From 7 – 11 years old) Formal operational stage - Thinking about things that are not concrete, making hypotheses and predictions. (From 11 - adulthood) -What is the strange situation experiment? Define attachment Observational Conditions: Mother and child playing together Stranger enters Mother leaves the room Mother returns and stranger leaves Attachment - The emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. -What are the 4 parenting styles and their characteristics? Authoritarian Parenting - “restrictive and punitive” Authoritative Parenting - “limits but encourages independence” Neglectful Parenting - “not around” Permissive Parenting - “no limits on behavior” -When does adolescence begin? Transition from childhood to adulthood. Beginning around 10-12 years and ending at 18-21 years. -What areas of the brain continue to develop during adolescence? Amygdala - “emotional intelligence” Prefrontal Cortex - “self-control and decision-making” -What is adolescent egocentrism? Belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is. Personal Fable - Convinced that they are special, unique, and invincible. Imaginary Audience - Belief that everyone is noticing and watching them. Unit 3: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Learning -What is Learning? What is NOT learning? A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process resulting from practice or experience. Change in behavior Relatively permanent Not plasticity Not maturation -Know the definitions and be able to recognize examples of the different types of learning. Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning - “Associations between two stimuli” Operant Conditioning - “Associations between a response and its consequences” Observational Learning - “Learning by watching others” -unconditioned stimulus vs. conditioned stimulus vs. unconditioned response vs. conditioned response Conditioned Stimulus - Stimulus that starts out neutral Unconditioned Stimulus - Meaningful stimulus Unconditioned Response - Innate response to meaningful stimulus Conditioned Response - Learned response to previously neutral stimulus -know definitions and be able to identify them in the class examples Describe Operant Conditioning: A learning process in which a behavior becomes associated with a consequence. As a result of this association, the consequence influences the probability of that behavior occurring again in the future. -Positive vs. negative reinforcement; Positive vs. negative punishment; (examples) Positive Reinforcement - reinforcement by application (Dog sits on command = gets a treat) Negative Reinforcement - reinforcement by removal (Open umbrella = don’t get wet) Positive Punishment - punishment by application (Touch the filing cabinet = get a shock) Negative Punishment - punishment by removal (Come home after curfew = no TV for a week) -Learning names to Know: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura (know their contributions) Ivan Pavlov Scientist that systematically studied how we form associations between stimuli (classical conditioning). Edward L. Thorndike Scientist that first demonstrated the power of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior B.F. Skinner Extremely influential scientist associated with further defining operant conditioning and using it to modify and control behavior. Albert Bandura Social cognitive theory known for modeling study on aggression, referred as the “Bobo doll” experiment”, which demonstrated that children can learn behaviours through the observation of adults John B. Watson Popularized the scientific theory of behaviorism, Behavior changes through rewards and punishments. Can only know that which is directly observable. No speculation about what is going on in “the mind.” Memory -Three Key Memory Processes Encoding - “writing it down” Storage - “filing it away” Retrieval - “bringing it back out” -Sensory Memory First step of memory storage process. Holds information in your mind for a very brief period of time. -Short Term memory (capacity of 7 + or – 2 items) Limited capacity memory system which stores information for approximately 30 seconds without effort. Also called working memory. Rehearsal - the process of repeating information to learn and remember it Elaboration - adding meaningful details to information in order to enhance understanding and memory retention Chunking - process of breaking down large amounts of information into smaller, more manageable units, or chunks, to improve short-term memory -Long Term memory Last step in the memory storage process, in which we can store unlimited amounts of information for a long time. Declarative or Explicit Memory - Conscious memories for people, places, events, facts, dates, feelings, and explanations. Memory for who, what, where, when, and why. Nondeclarative or Implicit Memory - Non-conscious memories for skills, procedures, subliminal information, and classically conditioned responses. Memory for “how.” Episodic - Memory for events in your life. Autobiographical memory. Semantic - Memory about the world. General common knowledge. -Recency effect vs. Primacy effect Primacy Effect - Tendency to better remember information presented at the beginning of a list Recency Effect - Tendency to better remember information presented at the end of a list -Proactive interference vs. Retroactive interference False memories Proactive Interference - Old information interferes with our ability to remember new information (All of the times you took your daily pills in the past interfere with your ability to remember if you took it today.) Retroactive Interference - New information interferes with our ability to remember old Information (Your new phone number interferes with your ability to remember your old one.) False Memories - Inaccuracies and distortions of our reconstructed memories that occur over time. When we retrieve a memory, it is susceptible to “contamination” by newly presented stimuli and information. -Anterograde amnesia vs. Retrograde amnesia Infantile Amnesia - “no early memories” Retrograde Amnesia - “loss of past memories” Anterograde Amnesia - “no new memory formation” -Cognition Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information. Organizing information, understanding information, and communicating information -Concept formation Artificial concepts (Formal concepts) - Arise out of logical rules or definitions. All those objects meeting the criteria are included, those missing features are excluded. Ex. Triangle: has 3 sides and 3 angles. Natural Concepts - Categories that have “general rules” about what belongs. We create a “prototype” or “best example” Ex. Concept of “Bird”--A robin or sparrow may be what comes to mind because it best captures “birdness.” -Problem solving Algorithms - Step by step procedure that, if appropriate, will always result in the solution. Ex. Rubic’s cube; Math problems; assembly instructions Heuristics - An educated guess. Your “go to” strategy. Applying shortcut solutions based on past knowledge and experience. Example: “Do you know how to fix the Wi-Fi?” Insight - When puzzling over a problem and we suddenly divine an abrupt, true-seeming, satisfying solution. “AHA!” moment. Problem Solving Obstacles Mental sets - Can only think of solutions that have gone before. Lack of creativity. Inability to see things from a fresh perspective. Functional Fixedness - View objects as only serving in their intended capacity. Fail to see that objects can serve more than one purpose. Confirmation Bias - We tend to favor evidence that confirms our preconceived ideas. -Decision-making When making decisions, we can either engage in concerted problem-solving efforts, weighing pros and cons, doing research, weighing the evidence OR use our intuition—our fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings and thoughts. Intuition - That feeling in your gut when you instinctively know that something you are doing is right or wrong. Availability Heuristic - Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory Overconfidence - The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements Belief Perseverance - Clinging to one’s original beliefs even when faced with legitimate evidence to the contrary Framing - How an issue is posed can greatly affect our perceptions and then our decisions and judgements Unit 4: Social psychology and Psychological Disorders and Therapies Social Psychology -What is Social Cognition? How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information. -Attribution Theory – situational factors vs. internal, dispositional traits Attribution - Determining why people do what they do. Internal vs. External causes Stable vs. Unstable causes Controllable vs. Uncontrollable causes Fundamental Attribution Error - People tend to overestimate the importance of stable, internal traits and underestimate the importance of temporary, external situations when seeking explanations for others’ behavior. Self-serving Bias - We often attribute our own behavior to whichever explanation benefits us the most. False Consensus Effect - Overestimation of the degree to which everyone else thinks and acts as we do. -Stereotyping and stereotype threat Stereotype - Generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not account for individual variability. Sometimes it is accurate, but often overgeneralized. Stereotype threat - Type of self-fulfilling prophecy in which anxiety about being negatively stereotyped actually causes underperformance. -Prejudice and discrimination – What is the difference between these two? Prejudice - Prejudgment. Unjustifiable and usually negative attitude about a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition towards discriminatory actions Discrimination - Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. -Self-fulfilling prophecy Expectations cause individuals to act in ways that make the expectations come true. -Cognitive Dissonance Theory – what is it? Altruism – when do we help? Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger) - the conflict or anxiety we feel when there is an inconsistency between our beliefs and our actions. Altruism - Unselfish interest in helping another person. -The Bystander Effect The Bystander Effect - A social psychological theory that people are less likely to help someone in need when others are present -Conformity (Informational vs. Normative conformity) Milgram Obedience Study Conformity - Changing one’s behavior to align with the group or group standard. Informational Social Influence - The influence people have on us because we want to be right. Normative Social influence - The influence people have on us because we want to be liked. Psychological Disorders -What is the DSM? Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) - Contains each known disorder, a description, symptoms, checklist of criteria, and other relevant facts. -What are the Models of Abnormality (Approaches) Biological Models - Psychological disorders have a biological cause. Also known as the medical model. Psychological Models Psychoanalysis - Behavioral abnormality is the result of repressing undesirable thoughts, memories, and concerns. Behaviorism - Abnormal behaviors are learned through a series of rewards and punishments. Cognitive perspective - Abnormal behavior results from illogical thinking patterns. -Anxiety Disorders: Phobias vs. OCD vs. GAD vs. Panic Disorder Phobias - Irrational fear that causes undue personal distress and/or interferes with normal functioning Social Phobias - Fear of interacting with others or being in a social situation Specific Phobias - Fear of something in particular Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Obsessions - Intruding thoughts that occur again and again. Compulsions - Ritualistic behavior that reduces anxiety. Panic Disorder - Sudden onset of extreme panic; impending sense of doom Symptoms: Racing heart rate Rapid breathing Out of body experience Sweating Dry mouth Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - Excessive anxiety and worry occur more days than not for at least six months that interferes with normal functioning and causes personal distress (Can often lead to depression and other disorders.) Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - Anxiety disorder that develops after exposure to a traumatic event, oppressive situation, abuse, or disaster. Symptoms: Flashbacks Emotionally avoidant Desensitization Exaggerated startle response Difficulty concentrating Apprehensive and nervous Impulsive outbursts (sometimes aggressive) - Anxiety Disorders Psychoanalytic Approach - Anxiety disorders are the result of repressed feelings and thoughts Behavioral Approach - Anxiety disorders are learned over time Cognitive Approach - Anxiety disorders are the result of illogical, irrational thinking patterns. Magnification - Exaggeration of events, ideas, feelings All-or-nothing thinking - Must be perfect or it’s completely ruined Overgeneralization - Single negative event interpreted as a pattern Minimization - only look at the bad, minimizing the positive -Mood Disorders: Major Clinical Depression Deeply depressed mood or an inability to experience pleasure that comes on fairly suddenly and is out of proportion with the circumstances surrounding it. (Depression is the number one reason people seek mental health services.) Bipolar disorder - Cycling between manic episodes (extreme happiness) and depressive episodes. -Schizophrenia What does it mean to be psychotic? Positive vs. Negative symptoms Schizophrenia - Long-lasting psychotic disorder (involving a break with reality) characterized by disturbances in thinking, emotions, behavior, and perception. Positive symptoms - Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, irrational thought, word salad Negative symptoms - Flat affect, catatonia, social withdrawal, lack of speech (Negative symptoms are more difficult to treat than positive symptoms.) Psychotic - A collection of symptoms that affect the mind and cause a person to lose touch with reality Therapies -Psychotherapy vs. Biomedical therapy Psychotherapy - “talking about problems” Biomedical therapy - “medical procedure” -Insight vs. Action therapies (what are the pros and cons of each type) Insight therapies - Aimed at understanding motives and actions. Action therapies - Aimed at changing behavior. -Basic characteristics of Psychoanalysis; Humanistic; Behavioral; and Cognitive Therapy Insight Therapies Psychoanalysis - Mental and behavioral problems are caused by conflicts between acceptable behavior and unacceptable, unconscious desires. Humanistic - Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human nature as growth seeking experiences and motivations for behavior. Action Therapies Behavioral - An action therapy involving the use of learning techniques to change undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior. Cognitive - Focused on changing distorted thinking patterns. Goal is to help clients think more positively. -Which psychotherapy is most successful for depression and anxiety disorders? Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) - Mixes both Cognitive therapy with Behaviorism -​ CBT is the most effective form of psychotherapy for anxiety and mood disorders. -​ May just be treating symptoms, not underlying causes of problem.