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What is the basic unit of life? The basic unit of life is the cell, which is specialized for various functions such as movement, secretion, and respiration. What is the primary function of the cell membrane? The cell membrane controls what enters and exits the cell, maintaining fluid...

What is the basic unit of life? The basic unit of life is the cell, which is specialized for various functions such as movement, secretion, and respiration. What is the primary function of the cell membrane? The cell membrane controls what enters and exits the cell, maintaining fluid balance and facilitating drug interactions. What is the function of mitochondria? Mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP and are important for oxygen use. What role do ribosomes play in the cell? Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis, which is crucial for tissue repair. What is aerobic respiration and how much ATP does it produce? Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to produce 38 ATP molecules. What is anaerobic respiration and what are its byproducts? Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, producing 2 ATP molecules and lactic acid, which can lead to acidosis in trauma. What are osmosis and diffusion, and why are they important? Osmosis and diffusion are passive transport mechanisms essential for maintaining fluid balance within the cell. What is the sodium-potassium pump and its significance? The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport mechanism crucial for electrolyte balance, especially in cardiac patients. Which electrolytes are essential for cellular function? Sodium, potassium, and calcium are essential electrolytes for cellular function. What is the normal pH range of the body, and why is it critical? The normal pH range is 7.35-7.45. Maintaining this range is critical for addressing conditions like acidosis (oxygen deprivation) or alkalosis. What are the four main types of tissues in the body? The four main tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. What are the functions of epithelial tissue? Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, protects, secretes substances, and allows permeability. It is located on the skin, organs, and glands. What roles does connective tissue play? Connective tissue supports and protects structures, stores fat, and produces blood cells. It is found in bones, tendons, and ligaments. What are the three types of muscle tissue and their functions? Skeletal Muscle: Facilitates voluntary movement and is attached to bones. Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle found in organs like the intestines. Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary muscle that makes up the heart. What is the primary function of nervous tissue? Nervous tissue sends electrical impulses to communicate with muscles and glands. It is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. What is a serous membrane and where is it found? Serous membranes line cavities without external openings, such as the pleura and pericardium, and secrete fluid for lubrication. What distinguishes a mucous membrane from other membranes? Mucous membranes line cavities with external openings like the mouth and nose and secrete mucus. What is the cutaneous membrane? The cutaneous membrane refers to the skin, which protects body surfaces. Where is the synovial membrane located and what is its function? Synovial membranes line joints and secrete fluid to reduce friction. How should paramedics recognize different tissues and their roles in injuries? Paramedics should identify various tissues such as muscle tears and nerve damage to assess the extent of injuries accurately. Why is understanding membrane types important for paramedics? Understanding serous and mucous membranes helps paramedics assess fluid build-up and trauma impacts. How can paramedics identify muscle control issues during patient transport? By recognizing voluntary versus involuntary muscle control, especially in cardiac emergencies. What signs indicate nervous system damage in trauma patients? Signs include lack of sensation and loss of motor function. What is homeostasis? Homeostasis is the body's way of maintaining balance in temperature, pH, fluid, and electrolyte levels. How is hyperthermia managed? Hyperthermia is managed with cooling methods such as ice packs and fans. How is hypothermia treated? Hypothermia is treated by warming techniques like blankets and warm IV fluids. How can acidosis or alkalosis be corrected? Acidosis or alkalosis can be corrected through ventilation adjustments or medication, aiming for a pH of 7.35-7.45. How is fluid and electrolyte balance maintained in patients? Balance is maintained with IV fluids based on patient needs, especially in cases of dehydration or trauma. What are key interventions for maintaining temperature homeostasis? Applying cooling for heatstroke or warming for hypothermia. How should paramedics manage fluid balance? By monitoring intake/output and administering IV fluids for dehydration or electrolyte imbalance. What interventions are necessary for acid-base balance? Adjusting ventilation for respiratory acidosis or alkalosis. What is apoptosis? Apoptosis is the process of normal cell death and turnover, such as red blood cell turnover. Why is understanding cell turnover important in conditions like cancer? Disruptions in cell turnover can lead to uncontrolled cell growth, as seen in cancer. What is negative feedback in homeostasis? Negative feedback is a mechanism the body uses to stabilize functions by counteracting deviations from a set point. What is autonomous dysregulation and its implications? Autonomous dysregulation refers to the loss of regulation in bodily systems, such as in sepsis or bleeding, requiring immediate response. What should be checked during a quick homeostasis assessment? Vital signs including temperature, pH, and fluid balance should be checked. What interventions restore homeostatic balance? Interventions include IV fluids, temperature regulation, and ventilation support. What are the major organ systems in the body? The major organ systems include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, lymphatic, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. What are the primary functions of the integumentary system? The integumentary system protects against injury, infection, and UV damage; regulates temperature; maintains fluid balance; transmits sensory information; and participates in the inflammatory response. What are the layers of the skin? The skin consists of the epidermis (outer layer), dermis (contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves), and subcutaneous tissue (fat layer that insulates and anchors the skin). What roles do hair and nails play in the integumentary system? Hair protects against injury, UV rays, and particles, while nails protect the fingertips and toes. What types of glands are found in the integumentary system and their functions? Sebaceous Glands: Secrete oil to maintain skin and hair hydration. Sweat Glands: Regulate body temperature through sweat secretion. How should paramedics assess the skin of trauma patients? By checking for injuries, burns, signs of infection, and temperature dysregulation such as hypothermia or hyperthermia. Why is fluid regulation important in trauma cases? To monitor dehydration and sweating, which can affect patient stability. How should inflammation be managed by paramedics? By identifying inflammation and applying first aid to prevent infection. What should be checked during a quick skin assessment? Look for trauma, burns, infections, and recognize the depth of injury (epidermis vs. dermis). What interventions are necessary for temperature dysregulation? Apply cooling techniques for heat stroke or warming methods for hypothermia. How should fluid loss be managed? With IV fluids or oral hydration as needed. What are the primary functions of the skeletal system? The skeletal system provides support, facilitates movement through leverage, protects internal organs, regulates calcium levels, and produces blood cells. What are the two main divisions of the skeleton? Axial Skeleton: Includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, protecting the brain, heart, lungs, and spinal cord. Appendicular Skeleton: Comprises the shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and limbs, facilitating movement. What are the different types of bones and their functions? Long Bones (e.g., humerus, femur): Important for movement and support. Short Bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals): Support fine movements. Flat Bones (e.g., sternum, ribs): Protect internal organs. Irregular Bones (e.g., vertebrae, pelvis): Protect the spinal cord and support body structure. What are the types of joints and their characteristics? Fibrous Joints: No movement (e.g., skull sutures). Cartilaginous Joints: Slight movement (e.g., intervertebral discs). Synovial Joints: Allow movement (e.g., shoulder, knee) and require stabilization to prevent further injury in trauma. How does ossification contribute to bone health? Ossification is the process of bone growth and healing, requiring proper immobilization for recovery. How is calcium regulated in the body? Parathyroid hormone (PTH) releases calcium from bones when blood calcium levels are low. How should paramedics assess the skeletal system in trauma patients? By identifying fractures, dislocations, and bone deformities. What signs indicate calcium imbalances? Hypocalcemia can cause muscle cramps, while hypercalcemia may lead to confusion. How should joint injuries be managed? By assessing for ligament tears, sprains, and stabilizing injured joints. Why is blood cell production important in trauma recovery? Red marrow produces RBCs, WBCs, and platelets, which are essential for recovery from trauma-related conditions like anemia and infection. What should be evaluated during a quick skeletal assessment? Look for fractures, dislocations, and skeletal deformities. How should fractures be stabilized? Using splints to immobilize the affected area. How are calcium imbalances managed? By administering calcium supplements or IV calcium as needed. How does skeletal knowledge aid in emergency treatments? It helps assess injury impact and determine appropriate stabilization measures for patients. What are the primary functions of the muscular system? Movement and posture maintenance, joint stability, and heat production. What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle? Skeletal muscles are excitable, contractile, extensible, and elastic, allowing them to respond to stimuli, shorten to cause movement, stretch, and return to their original shape after contraction. What are the origin and insertion points in muscle anatomy? Origin: Fixed attachment point. Insertion: Movable attachment point that is pulled toward the origin during contraction. How does muscle contraction occur? Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction by releasing acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction, triggering calcium release and using ATP for energy. What are the primary energy sources for muscle contraction? ATP is the main energy source, supplemented by creatine phosphate for rapid ATP replenishment and managing oxygen debt from lactic acid buildup during anaerobic respiration. What causes muscle fatigue? Lactic acid buildup resulting in an inability to contract effectively. How does heat production relate to muscle function? Muscle contractions produce heat, which is important for regulating body temperature. How should paramedics identify muscle injuries? By recognizing strains, tears, and other muscle injuries through examination and patient history. What should be monitored regarding energy and fatigue in patients? Muscle fatigue and oxygen debt should be managed with proper oxygenation and hydration. Why is calcium monitoring important in muscle function? Calcium is essential for muscle contraction, and imbalances may require administration of calcium in cases of hypocalcemia. How does understanding the neuromuscular junction aid paramedics? It helps in managing nerve injuries by understanding how ACh stimulates muscle activity. How can muscle and joint stability be assessed quickly? Through physical examination and patient history to identify injuries. What interventions are necessary for muscle and joint injuries? Stabilizing muscles and joints with splints or braces and managing oxygen debt and fatigue with oxygen therapy and hydration. How does musculoskeletal knowledge influence emergency treatments? It helps determine appropriate interventions for muscle and joint injuries, ensuring effective stabilization and recovery. What are the main functions of the nervous system? Monitoring internal and external environments, sensory processing, and coordinating responses for both voluntary and involuntary actions. What are the components of the CNS? The brain and spinal cord. What are the primary functions of the CNS? Controlling thought, movement, and autonomic functions. How is the CNS protected? By the cranium, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the blood-brain barrier. What are the components of the PNS? The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). What does the somatic nervous system regulate? Voluntary movements. What are the two branches of the ANS and their functions? Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight or flight" responses, such as increased heart rate. Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest and digest" functions, like digestion and lowering heart rate. What are the main structures of a neuron? Dendrites, which receive signals, and axons, which transmit impulses. What are the functions of motor and sensory neurons? Motor Neurons: Carry signals from the CNS to muscles. Sensory Neurons: Carry signals from the body to the CNS. What are some key cranial nerves and their functions? I (Olfactory): Smell II (Optic): Vision VII (Facial): Facial expressions VIII (Vestibulocochlear): Hearing and balance How should cranial nerves be assessed during patient evaluation? By testing sensory and motor functions related to each cranial nerve. What are the different types of pain? Somatic Pain: Localized pain from skin, muscles, or joints. Visceral Pain: Deep pain from internal organs. Referred Pain: Pain felt in an area away from its source, such as heart attack pain in the arm. Phantom Pain: Pain felt in amputated body parts. What is the role of the spinal cord? It transmits motor and sensory signals between the brain and the body. How is the spinal cord protected? It is encased in the vertebral column. What should be included in a neurological assessment? Evaluate consciousness, motor and sensory function, and test reflexes. How should pain be managed based on its type? Differentiate between somatic, visceral, and referred pain to administer appropriate pain management. Why is cranial nerve assessment important? To detect signs of nerve damage by testing vision, hearing, and balance. How should spinal cord injuries be managed? By stabilizing the spine and monitoring for motor and sensory loss. What are the signs of autonomic dysregulation and how should they be managed? Signs include "fight or flight" responses like increased heart rate and sweating, which should be managed with appropriate interventions. How can neurological injuries be detected quickly? Through rapid neurological assessments to identify injuries or abnormalities. What interventions are necessary for suspected spinal trauma? Stabilize the head and spine to prevent further injury. How should pain and autonomic dysfunction be managed? With appropriate medications tailored to the type of pain and autonomic symptoms. How does neural and sensory assessment influence interventions? It helps determine necessary actions such as immobilization or medication administration based on the assessments. What are the primary functions of the endocrine system? Hormone secretion to regulate metabolism, blood glucose, and other body functions; managing stress responses; and maintaining glucose levels. How do the adrenal glands contribute to the stress response? They release cortisol to manage stress during trauma. How do insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels? Insulin lowers blood glucose by allowing cells to uptake glucose, while glucagon raises blood glucose by promoting glycogen breakdown. What is the role of the pituitary gland? The pituitary gland, known as the master gland, regulates other glands by releasing hormones like growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). What hormones are produced by the thyroid gland and their functions? The thyroid produces T3 and T4, which control metabolism, and calcitonin, which regulates calcium levels. How do the parathyroid glands maintain calcium balance? They release parathyroid hormone (PTH) to increase blood calcium levels when needed. What hormones are produced by the adrenal glands? The adrenal glands produce cortisol (stress management), aldosterone (fluid balance), and adrenaline (fight-or-flight response). What functions does the pancreas serve in the endocrine system? The pancreas produces insulin to lower blood glucose and glucagon to raise blood glucose levels. What is the function of insulin? Insulin lowers blood glucose by enabling cells to take up glucose. How does glucagon function in the body? Glucagon raises blood glucose by promoting the breakdown of glycogen. What role does cortisol play in the body? Cortisol regulates metabolism and manages the stress response. How do thyroid hormones affect the body? Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) control the metabolic rate and energy use. How should paramedics monitor and manage diabetes in patients? By monitoring blood glucose levels, recognizing hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, and administering insulin or glucose as needed. What signs indicate an adrenal crisis and how should it be managed? Signs include fatigue and low blood pressure. Management involves administering corticosteroids if necessary. How can thyroid disorders be identified and managed? By recognizing symptoms of hypothyroidism (fatigue, cold intolerance) or hyperthyroidism (heat intolerance, weight loss) and providing appropriate treatments. What are the strategies for temperature regulation in endocrine emergencies? Managing fevers with antipyretics like acetaminophen and treating hypothermia with warming techniques. How should hormone imbalances be managed? By administering necessary hormones or medications, such as insulin for diabetes or cortisol for adrenal crisis. What signs indicate hormonal imbalances in patients? Signs include thyroid storms, diabetic ketoacidosis, and adrenal insufficiency. How should hypoglycemia be treated? By administering glucose. What is the treatment for hyperglycemia? Administering insulin. How should adrenal insufficiency be managed? By administering corticosteroids. How does patient history influence endocrine interventions? It helps prioritize hormone-related interventions based on symptoms and medical history. What are the main components of the circulatory system? The heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood. What are the two main circuits of the circulatory system? Systemic Circulation: Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart. Pulmonary Circulation: Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart. What are the main components of blood and their functions? Plasma: Carries water, proteins, nutrients, and hormones. Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Transport oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. White Blood Cells (WBCs): Fight infections, including neutrophils and lymphocytes. Platelets: Aid in blood clotting. What are the four chambers of the heart? The right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle. What is the function of heart valves? Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood, including the tricuspid, mitral, pulmonary, and aortic valves. What is the pathway of blood flow through the heart? Right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body. What are the steps of hemostasis? Vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and the coagulation cascade where fibrin stabilizes the clot. How is a blood clot broken down? Through fibrinolysis, which removes the clot after healing. What is the significance of blood types in transfusions? Type O: Universal donor. Type AB: Universal recipient. Rh Factor: Rh+ and Rh– must be compatible to prevent transfusion reactions. How should blood pressure be monitored in patients? By checking for signs of shock, such as low blood pressure and fast heart rate, and intervening early with fluids or medications. What are the methods to manage bleeding? Using direct pressure, tourniquets, or hemostatic agents. How can blood transfusion reactions be prevented? By ensuring compatibility of ABO and Rh blood types. What are the signs of a myocardial infarction? Chest pain and shortness of breath, requiring quick recognition and action. How should shock be managed? By providing IV fluids to restore circulation and using vasopressors to support blood pressure. How can circulation issues be detected quickly? By assessing pulse, blood pressure, and skin color to identify shock or impaired blood flow. What are the immediate actions for controlling bleeding? Apply direct pressure to the wound and use tourniquets or hemostatic agents if necessary. How should shock be treated? With IV fluids or blood transfusions to restore circulation. How should paramedics respond to signs of poor circulation or blood loss? By applying life-saving measures like fluid resuscitation to stabilize the patient. What are the primary functions of the respiratory system? Delivering oxygen to the body, removing carbon dioxide, and protecting the body by filtering air to trap pathogens and particles. What are the components of the upper airway? The nose, mouth, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify air. What structures make up the lower airway? The trachea, bronchi, and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. What is the main muscle involved in breathing? The diaphragm. What is tidal volume (TV)? The amount of air moved per breath during normal breathing. What is minute volume (MV)? The total amount of air moved per minute, calculated as TV multiplied by respiratory rate. What is vital capacity (VC)? The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after maximum inhalation. What is residual volume (RV)? The amount of air remaining in the lungs after exhalation to prevent alveolar collapse. How does inhalation occur? The diaphragm contracts, creating negative pressure to draw air into the lungs. How does exhalation occur? The diaphragm relaxes, expelling air from the lungs. What does the oxyhemoglobin curve illustrate? It shows how oxygen binds to hemoglobin. A right shift releases oxygen to tissues, while a left shift holds oxygen in the lungs. What part of the brain controls the respiratory rate? The medulla oblongata adjusts the respiratory rate in response to CO₂ levels. What role do the phrenic nerves play in breathing? They control the diaphragm, facilitating breathing. How should paramedics assess a patient's airway? By ensuring the airway is clear and checking for breathing difficulties. What methods are used for oxygen therapy? Administering oxygen using nasal cannulas or masks based on SpO₂ levels. How should ventilation be managed in respiratory distress? Using CPAP or BiPAP for patients in respiratory distress or intubation for severe respiratory failure. What signs indicate respiratory distress? Use of accessory muscles, cyanosis, and altered mental status. How should respiratory emergencies be treated? By administering bronchodilators for asthma, epinephrine for anaphylaxis, and providing support for pneumothorax or pulmonary embolism. What should be assessed to detect respiratory distress? Airway patency, breathing rate, and effort. What interventions are necessary for respiratory distress? Administer oxygen and provide ventilation support based on the patient's oxygen saturation and clinical presentation. How should hypoxia be managed in patients? By recognizing it and implementing appropriate interventions such as administering oxygen or bronchodilators. What are the main functions of the digestive system? Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and excretion of nutrients. What is the pathway of the alimentary canal? Mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus. What are the accessory organs of the digestive system and their functions? Salivary Glands: Produce saliva for digestion. Liver: Metabolizes nutrients. Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile. Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and insulin. Which organs are located in the RUQ (Right Upper Quadrant)? Liver and gallbladder. What organs are found in the LUQ (Left Upper Quadrant)? Stomach and spleen. Which structures are in the RLQ (Right Lower Quadrant)? Cecum and appendix. What is located in the LLQ (Left Lower Quadrant)? Sigmoid colon. What signs indicate dehydration? Hypotension and tachycardia. How should dehydration be treated? By administering IV fluids. What are some common gastrointestinal emergencies? Appendicitis, bowel obstruction, and pancreatitis. How should aspiration be prevented in vomiting patients? By managing the airway to prevent aspiration. What are the main functions of the urinary system? Filtering blood, balancing fluids and electrolytes, and regulating pH. What are the primary functions of the kidneys? Filtering blood, balancing fluids and electrolytes, and regulating pH. What is the role of the bladder? Storing urine and triggering the micturition reflex. How does ADH affect fluid balance? ADH promotes water retention in the kidneys. What triggers the thirst mechanism? The need to prompt fluid intake when the body is dehydrated. What electrolyte imbalances should paramedics watch for? Hyperkalemia and hypokalemia. What are the key organs of the urinary system? Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. What is the pathway for sperm production and ejaculation in males? Testes → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculation. What is the female reproductive anatomy involved in egg production and fertilization? Ovaries produce eggs, uterine tubes transport eggs, and fertilization occurs in the uterine tubes. The uterus supports pregnancy, and the vagina handles menstruation and childbirth. What are some key reproductive emergencies? Ectopic pregnancy (severe pain, bleeding), testicular torsion (sudden pain, swelling), and sepsis (fever, pain, altered mental state). How should hormonal imbalances related to the reproductive system be managed? By monitoring for hypo/hypergonadism and addressing imbalances with fluids and hormone therapy support. How should reproductive injuries be managed in trauma cases? By stabilizing injuries, managing bleeding, and protecting the airway in severe cases.