Chapters 1-7 PDF - Human Biology
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This document is a set of chapters (1-7) from a human biology textbook. It covers fundamental concepts like anatomy, physiology, and cell processes. The content explores the structure and function of the human body, along with key topics within cell biology. Useful for high school or introductory university biology courses.
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Chapter 1 1. Front: Define Anatomy Back: The study of the structure of the body and its parts. 2. Front: Define Physiology Back: The study of the function of the body and its parts. 3. Front: Explain the importance between structure and function Back: Structure determines...
Chapter 1 1. Front: Define Anatomy Back: The study of the structure of the body and its parts. 2. Front: Define Physiology Back: The study of the function of the body and its parts. 3. Front: Explain the importance between structure and function Back: Structure determines function; the anatomy of a part of the body is directly related to its ability to perform a specific task. 4. Front: List and define the six characteristics of life Back: ○ Organization: Complex structure and order. ○ Metabolism: Chemical reactions to maintain life. ○ Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli. ○ Growth: Increase in size and complexity. ○ Development: Differentiation and changes through life stages. ○ Reproduction: Production of new organisms. 5. Front: Define Homeostasis Back: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. 6. Front: Describe Negative Feedback Back: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point to maintain homeostasis. 7. Front: Describe Positive Feedback Back: A mechanism that enhances or amplifies a deviation from the set point. 8. Front: Define the Direction terms Back: Terms used to describe the location of body parts relative to one another (e.g., superior, inferior, anterior, posterior). 9. Front: Describe the serous membrane Back: Thin tissue layers lining body cavities and covering organs; includes the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. Chapter 2 1. Front: Describe how the properties of water contribute to its physiological functions Back: Water's properties, such as cohesion, high heat capacity, and solvent abilities, make it essential for temperature regulation, chemical reactions, and transportation in the body. 2. Front: Describe the pH scale and its relationship to acidic, basic, and neutral solutions Back: The pH scale ranges from 0-14. Acidic solutions (pH < 7) have more H⁺ ions, neutral solutions (pH = 7) have equal H⁺ and OH⁻ ions, and basic solutions (pH > 7) have more OH⁻ ions. Chapter 3 1. Front: Describe the nature of the plasma membrane in reference to the passage of materials through it Back: The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, controlling the movement of substances through phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and channels. 2. Front: List and explain the three ways that molecules and ions can pass through the plasma membrane Back: ○ Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration. ○ Facilitated Diffusion: Transport using protein carriers or channels. ○ Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient using energy (ATP). 3. Front: Discuss the process of diffusion Back: The passive movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. 4. Front: Explain the role of osmosis Back: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration. 5. Front: The difference between hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic Back: ○ Hypotonic: Solution with lower solute concentration, causing water to enter the cell. ○ Isotonic: Equal solute concentrations, no net water movement. ○ Hypertonic: Solution with higher solute concentration, causing water to leave the cell. 6. Front: Describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis Back: Endocytosis: The process where the cell engulfs substances into vesicles. ○ Types: phagocytosis (solid particles), pinocytosis (liquids). Exocytosis: The process where vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release substances outside the cell. 7. Front: Describe the structure and function of mitochondria Back: Mitochondria have a double membrane, with an inner folded membrane (cristae) and a matrix. They produce ATP through cellular respiration. 8. Front: Describe the two-step process that results in gene expression Back: ○ Transcription: DNA is used to produce mRNA in the nucleus. ○ Translation: mRNA is read by ribosomes to assemble proteins from amino acids. 9. Front: Explain the role of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in the production of protein Back: ○ DNA: Contains the genetic code. ○ mRNA: Carries the genetic instructions to ribosomes. ○ tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosomes. ○ rRNA: A component of ribosomes that helps assemble proteins. 10. Front: Define apoptosis Back: Programmed cell death, crucial for development and maintaining healthy tissues. Chapter 4 1. Front: List the four primary tissue types Back: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. 2. Front: List and explain the general characteristics of epithelial tissue Back: ○ Covers surfaces and lines cavities. ○ Has tightly packed cells with little extracellular matrix. ○ Avascular but innervated. ○ Regenerates quickly. 3. Front: Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands, and unicellular and multicellular glands Back: ○ Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts (e.g., sweat glands). ○ Endocrine: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream. ○ Unicellular: Single-cell glands (e.g., goblet cells). ○ Multicellular: Composed of many cells. 4. Front: List and describe the major functions of connective tissue Back: Binding, support, protection, insulation, energy storage, and transportation of substances. 5. Front: Describe the characteristic functions of each type of connective tissue Back: ○ Loose connective tissue: Supports and cushions organs. ○ Dense connective tissue: Provides strength and flexibility. ○ Cartilage: Resists compression and provides structure. ○ Bone: Supports and protects. ○ Blood: Transports nutrients and wastes. 6. Front: Describe the general structures of each of the three types of muscle tissue Back: ○ Skeletal: Striated, voluntary, multinucleated. ○ Cardiac: Striated, involuntary, intercalated discs. ○ Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped cells. 7. Front: Describe the structural and functional roles of neurons and glia in nervous tissue Back: ○ Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses. ○ Glia: Support, protect, and nourish neurons. 8. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of mucous membranes Back: Line cavities open to the exterior; secrete mucus for protection and moisture. 9. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of serous membranes Back: Line closed body cavities; secrete serous fluid to reduce friction. 10. Front: List the structural and functional characteristics of synovial membranes Back: Line joint cavities; secrete synovial fluid for lubrication. Chapter 5 1. Front: Describe the structure of the epidermis Back: The outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells; contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. 2. Front: Explain the major factors affecting skin color Back: Skin color is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin levels. 3. Front: Describe the structure of the dermis Back: The middle layer of the skin composed of connective tissue; contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles. 4. Front: Describe the structure of the subcutaneous tissue underlying the skin Back: Also called the hypodermis; composed of adipose and areolar tissue, providing insulation and cushioning. 5. Front: List the glands of the skin and describe the secretions they produce Back: ○ Sebaceous glands: Produce sebum (oil). ○ Sweat glands: Produce sweat for temperature regulation. ○ Ceruminous glands: Produce earwax. ○ Mammary glands: Produce milk. 6. Front: Explain how the skin acts as a sense organ Back: The skin contains sensory receptors that detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. 7. Front: Discuss the importance of the skin in temperature regulation Back: The skin regulates body temperature through sweat production and blood vessel dilation or constriction. Chapter 6 1. Front: List the components of the skeletal system Back: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints. 2. Front: Relate the importance of cartilage to the structure of the skeletal system Back: Cartilage provides flexibility, reduces friction, and absorbs shock in joints. 3. Front: Explain the types of cartilage growth Back: ○ Appositional growth: New layers are added to the surface. ○ Interstitial growth: Chondrocytes divide and secrete matrix within the cartilage. 4. Front: List each type of bone cell Back: ○ Osteoblasts: Build bone. ○ Osteocytes: Maintain bone. ○ Osteoclasts: Break down bone. 5. Front: Explain the structural differences between compact and spongy bone Back: ○ Compact bone: Dense, organized into osteons, found in diaphyses. ○ Spongy bone: Lattice-like, made of trabeculae, found in epiphyses. 6. Front: Classify bones according to their shape Back: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones. 7. Front: Label the parts of a typical long bone Back: Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, and endosteum. 8. Front: Describe the steps of endochondral ossification Back: ○ Cartilage model forms. ○ Cartilage calcifies. ○ Primary ossification center develops in the diaphysis. ○ Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyses. ○ Growth continues at epiphyseal plates. 9. Front: Outline and explain the steps in bone repair Back: ○ Hematoma formation. ○ Fibrocartilaginous callus forms. ○ Bony callus forms. ○ Bone remodeling. Chapter 7 1. Front: Define the anatomical terms for bone features Back: Terms include foramen (opening), process (projection), condyle (rounded protuberance), etc. 2. Front: List the bone shapes Back: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones. 3. Front: Name the bones of the skull Back: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, mandible, maxilla, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, etc. 4. Front: Describe the girdles that make up the appendicular skeleton Back: ○ Pectoral girdle: Clavicles and scapulae. ○ Pelvic girdle: Hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis). 5. Front: Identify the bones that make up the pectoral girdle Back: Clavicle and scapula. 6. Front: Name and describe the major bones of the upper limb Back: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. 7. Front: Name the bones that make up the hip bone. Distinguish between the male and the female pelvis Back: ○ Hip bones: Ilium, ischium, pubis. ○ Male pelvis: Narrower, heavier. ○ Female pelvis: Wider, lighter, larger pelvic inlet/outlet. 8. Front: Identify and describe the bones of the lower limb Back: Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.