Secondary Education in America Notes PDF

rd October 3 Secondary Education in America Notes What is Secondary Education? Includes middle schools, junior highs, and high schools. Key questions: ○ What should schools teach? Basics or a diverse range of classes? ○ Should schools provide more than just e...

rd October 3 Secondary Education in America Notes What is Secondary Education? Includes middle schools, junior highs, and high schools. Key questions: ○ What should schools teach? Basics or a diverse range of classes? ○ Should schools provide more than just education (e.g., social services)? ○ Should early adolescents be separated from older students? ○ Is tracking (grouping by ability) appropriate? Contemporary Secondary Education Typical school term: 180 days; students attend 90% of the term. School day: 6 periods, 40% of time on core academic subjects. Education lasts 13 years, with 75% of fifth graders graduating from high school. Historical Context Urbanization: Education provides a way to improve the lives of urban youth. Origins of Compulsory Education: Adolescents were forced out of the workforce due to industrialization and immigration. By the 1920s, secondary education became widespread with goals of intellectual training and preparation for modern roles (work and citizenship). Comprehensive High School Offers general education, college preparation, and vocational education. School Reform Curriculum Changes: ○ 1950s: Focus on science. ○ 1970s: Preventative interventions. ○ 1990s: Relevance to work.  ○ 2000s: Enforcement of academic standards. COVID-19 Pandemic: Schools became critical for social services, offering meals and extracurricular supervision. No Child Left Behind (1990s) Mandated academic proficiency for all students via standardized tests. Problems: Lack of resources, teaching to the test, and failure to assess critical thinking skills. Obama Administration: Aimed to fix No Child Left Behind, stressing high standards and teacher evaluation. Trump Administration: Focused on school choice, encouraging competition and vouchers for private/charter schools, though critics argued this drained public school funding. Biden Administration: Focused on reopening schools post-COVID and reversing Trump's policies to better fund public schools and reduce achievement gaps. Characteristics of Good Schools Emphasize intellectual activities. Teachers are committed, autonomous, and practices are monitored. Schools are integrated into their communities. Social Organization of Schools School Size: ○ Larger schools offer more courses and services but can negatively impact student engagement. ○ Smaller schools promote better performance and participation. Classroom Size: Larger class sizes do not always correlate with poorer academic achievement, except in remedial education. Age Grouping & School Transitions Elementary to Middle School: Academic motivation drops, but standardized test scores remain stable. This may indicate changes in motivation rather than knowledge.  ○ Middle schools are less personal, larger, and teachers emphasize discipline more. Tracking: Ability-grouping allows tailored lessons, but students in remedial tracks often receive poorer education quality. th October 8 Additional Notes on Adolescence & Schools Tracking Pros and Cons Pros: ○ Allows teachers to create lessons more suited to students' abilities. ○ Helps students master basic skills. Cons: ○ Remedial track students often receive poorer quality education. ○ Students in different tracks socialize only with peers from the same track. ○ May discriminate against poor and ethnic minority students. Effects of Tracking Both implementing tracking and eliminating it are controversial. Teachers may informally sort students based on ability, creating higher expectations for some and lower ones for others. Extremes in Ability Gifted Students: Unusually talented in intellectual performance. Learning Disabilities: ○ Dysgraphia (writing difficulties), Dyscalculia (math difficulties), and Dyslexia (reading difficulties). ○ ADHD (Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) affects 50-70% of students into adolescence. There are three subtypes: predominantly inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, and combined. Effects of Extremes  Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect: Students in high-achieving environments feel worse about themselves compared to equally successful students in lower-achieving environments. Students with learning disabilities benefit from extra instruction in study skills, organization, and time management. Ethnic Composition & Segregation Effects of Desegregation: ○ Little impact on academic achievement for either minority or white students. ○ Minority students feel a stronger connection to schools where they are in the majority. ○ More diverse schools lead to higher engagement, feelings of safety, and lower instances of harassment. Peer Discrimination: Discrimination based on ethnicity can be verbal or physical, leading to lower self-esteem, depression, and lower academic motivation. Asian American students report more instances of peer discrimination in multiethnic settings due to factors like preferential treatment or being perceived as "foreign." Protective School Factors Greater ethnic diversity in schools may promote tolerance and lessen discrimination. School environments that celebrate different cultures and encourage interracial friendships can help reduce discrimination. Classroom Climate A positive classroom climate, with supportive and demanding teachers, is crucial for student achievement. Cooperation, positive teacher-student relationships, and moderate structure contribute to better learning environments. Bullying  Bullying is more common in schools with disorderly climates and unsupportive teachers. LGBTQ-focused policies are important to address bullying of sexual minority students. Teacher Expectations There is a strong correlation between teacher expectations and student performance, with about 80% of this due to accurate reflections of student ability. However, 20% of the effect comes from self-fulfilling prophecies, where teacher expectations shape student outcomes. Teachers may unconsciously base expectations on socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, giving unfair advantages or disadvantages to certain groups. th October 10 Student Engagement & Motivation Importance: Teachers and students influence each other. Engaged students motivate teachers, and effective teachers engage students. Student Engagement: The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning (not just completing work). ○ Types of Engagement: Affective: Enjoyment Behavioral: Effort Cognitive: Seeing value in the work ○ Examples: Purposefully Engaged: Values material but doesn't enjoy the work. Fully Engaged: Enjoys and values the work. Rationally Engaged: Sees value but lacks effort due to boredom. Busily Engaged: Puts in effort but doesn't care about the material. Boredom in School Students, especially high schoolers, often feel bored.  ○ Causes: Routine structure, teacher lectures over student discussions. ○ Solutions: Engaging students by showing the relevance of work, fostering a sense of belonging. Out of School Influences Peers: Students with academically supportive peers are more engaged. Parents: Parental involvement and authoritative parenting practices correlate with better academic performance. School Violence Prevalence: 1 in 4 students experience violence at or around school. Responses: ○ Zero Tolerance Policies: Ineffective, often lead to more trouble. ○ Better Approaches: Define infractions carefully, use preventive measures, create positive school climates. Lethal School Violence Rare but widely publicized. Effective policies: Limit access to guns, treat mental health issues, foster a community where students feel responsible for each other. College Bound vs. Non-College Bound College Enrollment: 70% of high school graduates enroll in college. Non-College Bound: One-third of students don't attend college, often underprepared for work. Higher rates of depression in this group. Characteristics of Good Schools Emphasize intellectual activities. Employ committed teachers. Foster student participation. Have teachers specifically trained to teach adolescents. Effects of School on Adolescent Development Positive: School positively affects earnings and intellectual growth. Unclear: Impact on psychosocial development is less certain. Varied Experiences: Based on track, peer group, and extracurricular activities. Academic Achievement Motivation: ○ Mastery Motivation: Intrinsic, best performers in school. ○ Performance Motivation: Extrinsic, can stem from incentives. Fear of Failure: Leads to anxiety. Self-Handicapping: Behaving in ways that lead to failure (e.g., procrastination). Student Incentives Example Studies: ○ DC Middle School: Rewards improved behavior and attendance, but no effect on math or reading scores. ○ NYC 7th Graders: Paid for test score improvements but no effect on math or reading scores. Conclusions: ○ Input incentives (behavior/attendance) work better than output (test scores). ○ Align incentives with students' goals and values. th October 10 Importance Students and teachers influence each other: Engaged students can motivate teachers to be more effective, and vice versa. Student engagement: Refers to the psychological commitment to learning and mastering material rather than just completing tasks.  Disengagement: Can manifest behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. Types of Engagement Purposefully engaged: Doesn't enjoy the task but sees its value and puts in effort (e.g., studying for a calculus test to achieve future goals). Fully engaged: Enjoys the task, sees value, and puts in effort (e.g., working on a meaningful documentary project). Rationally engaged: Understands the value but doesn’t enjoy the task or exert much effort (e.g., a student in a boring lecture on global warming). Busily engaged: Puts in effort but doesn’t enjoy or see value in the task (e.g., completing monotonous worksheets). Pleasurably engaged: Enjoys the task but doesn’t put in effort or see value (e.g., listening to a teacher's story but not taking notes). Mentally engaged: Enjoys and values the task but doesn’t put in effort (e.g., working on an art project without much care before a break). Recreationally engaged: Enjoys and puts in effort, but doesn’t see value (e.g., competing in a class game without connecting it to larger goals). Boring Classes & Bored Students Causes of boredom: Rigid structures, make-work, lack of student engagement in discussions. Common in high school, but present even in high-achieving schools. Engagement strategies: Authentic assignments, student competence, and a sense of belonging can increase engagement. Out of School Influences Peer groups and family involvement significantly affect student engagement and success. Adolescents with friends who support academic achievement and involved parents tend to perform better. School Violence Prevalence: 1 in 4 students has experienced violence in or around school. Responses: Zero tolerance policies are controversial and disproportionately affect Black students. Effective strategies include staff training and climate improvement.  Lethal violence: Rare but highly publicized. Best policies include gun control and mental health support. College Bound 70% of high school graduates enroll in college, though only 60% finish in 6 years. Postsecondary education in the U.S. is accessible and diverse. Non-College Bound Schools often fail to prepare non-college-bound students for work, leading to higher rates of depression and underemployment. Characteristics of Good Schools Focus on intellectual activities. Employ dedicated, well-trained teachers. Create active, student-centered classrooms. Integration with communities. Achievement & Motivation Puberty and social changes impact achievement motivation. Self-control: Linked to better performance. Fear of failure: Can lead to self-handicapping behaviors (e.g., deliberately causing failure to protect self-esteem). Achievement Motivation Mastery motivation: Intrinsic, leads to better performance. Performance motivation: Extrinsic, motivated by rewards. Student Incentives & Outcomes Input incentives: Rewards based on effort, behavior, and attendance can improve these areas but might not affect test scores. ○ Example: DC middle schoolers improved on behavioral metrics but not reading or math. Output incentives: Rewards for test scores showed no significant improvements (e.g., NYC 7th graders). Conclusion: Incentives impact actions but do not fundamentally change attitudes or behaviors long-term. th October 15 Peer Groups and Their Evolution Definition: Peer groups are individuals of similar age. Historical Context: ○ Emerged with free public education, which grouped students by age (age grading). ○ Peer groups based on school friendships became common in the 20th century. Baby Boom Impact: ○ Post-WWII baby boom led to an "adolescent boom" in the 1960s and 1970s, nearly doubling the teenage population. ○ A second rise occurred in the 1990s as baby boomers had children. Peer Groups in Modern Society Margaret Mead's Theories: ○ Postfigurative cultures: Socialization by adults (traditional societies). ○ Configurative cultures: Young people socialized by adults and peers (modern societies). ○ Prefigurative cultures: Adults are sometimes socialized by young people (rapidly changing societies). Changes in Peer Groups Adolescents spend more time with peers, increasingly in mixed-gender groups without adult supervision. Cliques vs. Crowds: ○ Cliques: Small, tight-knit groups, often same-sex. ○ Crowds: Larger, reputation-based groups helping shape identity. ○ As adolescents grow, they shift from same-sex cliques to mixed-gender cliques, with crowds disintegrating in late adolescence. Romantic Relationships & Peer Dynamics  Puberty and cognitive development lead to a deeper understanding of social relationships and romantic interests, driving changes in peer groups. Social Structure and Identity Crowd Structure: Becomes more fluid and less hierarchical over time, allowing more freedom. Crowds as Reference Groups: Act as identity markers, influencing behavior, self-esteem, and status. Peer influence and crowd membership are particularly strong in early high school but decline by 12th grade as personal identity develops. Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, & Peer Groups In multiethnic schools, adolescents often divide along ethnic lines first, then form crowds within those groups. Crowd membership and the associated values differ across ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Measuring Peer Status Sociometric methods measure how well-liked (social preference) or socially impactful (perceived popularity) someone is. Factors affecting peer status include social skills (friendliness, humor) and status markers like attractiveness and athleticism. Impact of Peer Relationships Quality friendships boost self-esteem, lower loneliness, and reduce depression. Poor peer relationships are linked to low achievement, dropout rates, delinquency, and emotional problems. th October 17 Factors Influencing Clique Membership:  1. Orientation toward school: Similar attitudes about school and academic goals bond friends. 2. Orientation toward teen culture: Adolescents gravitate towards peers with shared cultural interests. 3. Involvement in antisocial activity: Adolescents engaging in deviant behavior form deviant peer groups like gangs, increasing their risk for various psychological and social issues. Role of Parents and Peers: Parent-Child Relationships: Problematic parent-child dynamics can foster antisocial behavior, but parents can still monitor and manage friendships, although excessive control may have negative effects. Peer Influence: Adults worry about peer influence leading to delinquency or substance use, raising the question of Selection vs. Socialization: Do friends influence behavior, or do similar individuals simply gravitate towards one another? Friendship Stability: Friendships, especially cliques, show moderate stability over a school year, with more stability in later high school years. Boys' friendships tend to be more stable than girls', and common causes of friendship breakdowns include: ○ Jealousy: Often due to romantic rivalries. ○ Incompatibility: Arising from personality clashes or different interests. ○ Intimacy-rule violations: Breach of trust or personal boundaries. ○ Aggression: Conflicts escalating into rumors or fights. Popularity and Rejection: Popular Adolescents: Generally more socially skilled, they benefit from close friendships, active social lives, and higher self-esteem. However, popularity comes with risks, such as becoming the target of others' jealousy or hostility. ○ Proactive aggression: Planned aggressive behavior. ○ Reactive aggression: Impulsive aggression. Rejected Adolescents: Three types of rejected adolescents are: ○ Aggressive: Difficulty controlling aggression. ○ Withdrawn: Shy, anxious, and inhibited. ○ Aggressive-withdrawn: A combination of aggression and withdrawal.  ○ Rejection has negative effects on mental health, leading to depression, behavioral issues, and academic struggles. Some rejected adolescents display hostile attribution bias, interpreting ambiguous interactions as hostile. Helping Unpopular Adolescents: Strategies for supporting unpopular teens include social skills training (self-expression, leadership, conversation skills), encouraging participation in group activities, and combining behavioral and cognitive interventions. Five Categories of Social Status in Peer Groups: 1. Popular (20%): a. Characteristics: Cooperative, friendly, sociable, attractive, sensitive. 2. Rejected (22%): a. Characteristics: Disruptive, aggressive (both physical and verbal), submissive, socially wary, and immature. 3. Neglected (23%): a. Characteristics: Avoids aggressive interchanges, low disruptiveness, may have few social interactions, but are not necessarily anxious about them. This is the least stable category. 4. Controversial (12%): a. Characteristics: May have traits of both popularity and rejection. They can be helpful and leaders but also aggressive. This subgroup has the least amount of research or information available. 5. Average (remaining percentage not specified here, but presumably those who don't fit into any extreme category). Popularity and Friendship: Popularity is not the same as friendship, as popularity may involve hierarchical rankings within a group. Some individuals receive more attention or social emotions, which doesn’t always equate to quality friendships. Popularity can be measured by clusters (shared preferences) and self-concept—which is influenced by how others treat and perceive an individual. SBP (Sociometer Theory) suggests self-esteem can predict social inclusion, as high self-esteem may lead to interpreting social signals more favorably and boosting popularity. Cyberbullying vs. Traditional Bullying: Cyberbullying has increased significantly over time, from 18% in 2007 to 34% in 2016. Differences from traditional bullying: ○ Requires more planning and is less reactive. ○ Easier for the bully to manipulate social status and reputation. ○ Cyberbullies tend to be more popular and better adjusted socially compared to traditional bullies. ○ Cyberbullying is often anonymous, which can make it harder for the victim to identify and report. Gender Differences in bullying: ○ Girls tend to use indirect means like gossip or humor. ○ Boys often resort to direct insults. ○ Effects: Girls are more likely to suffer from emotional problems like depression and anxiety, while boys may show behavioral problems like fighting. Roles in Bullying: Assistant: Joins the bullying but doesn’t initiate it. Reinforcer: Encourages the bully but doesn’t actively participate. Defender: Stands up for the victim. Bystander: Watches but does not intervene or take a stand. The Bystander Effect: The more people present, the less likely any one person feels responsible for intervening. In a 2013 study, less than 20% of bystanders intervened in bullying incidents, though bystander intervention is one of the most effective ways to reduce bullying. Bystander Decision Factors: Fear of becoming another victim. Thinking the situation isn’t severe. Feeling powerless or not knowing what to do. Believing that telling adults won’t help or will make it worse. Normalization of bullying behavior. Outcomes of Bullying: Victims: Experience emotional, academic, social, and physical health issues. Bullies: Are at increased risk for future antisocial behavior, struggle with healthy relationships, and may face legal consequences. Bystanders: May experience emotional distress and inadvertently reinforce negative behaviors. Schools: Increased classroom disruption, feelings of injustice, and students believing the school is unfair, which can lead to more school problems. These notes give a comprehensive overview of how social dynamics, particularly in the context of popularity and bullying, impact individuals and school environments. They also emphasize nd October 22 Changes in Family Dynamics: Adolescence brings shifts in family systems, with peak periods of conflict for boys around age 13-14 and for girls around 11-12. Midlife crises for parents often coincide with adolescence, adding tension. Familial Conflicts: These are often about mundane issues and not necessarily indicative of deeper rebellious behavior. Conflict increases during early adolescence but rarely escalates into full rebellion. Parenting Styles: Four distinct styles are identified—authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and indifferent—with authoritative parenting producing the best outcomes in terms of maturity, responsibility, and psychological health. Sibling Relationships: Sibling conflict tends to increase during adolescence but later becomes more equal and less intense. The quality of sibling relationships is influenced by the parent-child dynamic. Genetic & Environmental Factors: Both shared and nonshared environmental influences, along with genetics, play crucial roles in shaping adolescent behavior. The diathesis-stress model and differential susceptibility theory explain how genetic predispositions and environmental factors interact to influence mental health.