Unit 1 Review: Intro into American Government PDF

Unit 1 Review: Intro into American Government Be able to define and thoroughly explain the following terms: Definition of government The governing body of a nation, state, or community. Limited Government Limited government is a political system where the powers of the gover...

Unit 1 Review: Intro into American Government Be able to define and thoroughly explain the following terms: Definition of government The governing body of a nation, state, or community. Limited Government Limited government is a political system where the powers of the government are restricted by laws or a constitution to protect individual freedoms. This ensures that no branch or authority becomes too powerful, promoting checks and balances. Popular sovereignty Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, who hold the ultimate power. It emphasizes that political power rests with the citizens, typically expressed through voting and participation in democratic processes. Checks and Balances Checks and balances is a system in which the powers of government are divided among separate branches—typically the executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. Each branch has the authority to limit or check the actions of the others, ensuring a balance of power and protecting democratic governance. Federalism Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central (national) authority and smaller political units, such as states or provinces. This arrangement allows each level of government to have its own responsibilities and powers, while sharing some authority in areas like taxation and law enforcement. Judicial Review Judicial review is the power of courts, particularly the Supreme Court, to examine and determine the constitutionality of laws or government actions. It allows the judiciary to invalidate laws or decisions that violate the constitution, serving as a check on the legislative and executive branches. Separation of Powers Separation of powers is a principle that divides the functions and responsibilities of government into three distinct branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. This ensures that no single branch holds too much power, with each branch having its own roles and the ability to check the others, promoting a balance of authority in governance. Republic A republic is a form of government in which power is held by elected representatives and leaders, rather than a monarch, and where the people have the authority to elect their officials. In a republic, the government is based on the rule of law, with officials serving the interests of the citizens who elected them. John Locke  John Locke was an influential 17th-century English philosopher known for his contributions to political theory and the Enlightenment. He advocated for natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, and argued that governments should protect these rights. Locke’s ideas on the social contract, where governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed, significantly influenced modern democratic thought and the development of the U.S. Constitution. Amendment An amendment is a formal change or addition made to a legal document, typically a constitution or law. In the context of the U.S. Constitution, amendments are used to adjust or update its provisions, often to expand rights or clarify legal principles, such as the Bill of Rights. Confederacy A confederacy is a union of independent states or entities that come together for specific purposes, often to achieve mutual goals such as defense or trade, while maintaining their sovereignty. In a confederacy, the central authority is usually weaker than in a federal system, with most powers retained by the individual states. Bicameral Bicameral refers to a legislative body that has two separate chambers or houses. This structure is often used to balance power and represent different interests within the government. For example, the U.S. Congress is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, each with distinct roles and responsibilities in the lawmaking process. Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781. It established a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government, giving most powers to the individual states. The Articles created significant challenges, such as difficulties in raising revenue and regulating commerce, leading to their eventual replacement by the U.S. Constitution in 1789. Why Great Britain founded the colonies Economic Gain: The colonies were seen as a source of raw materials and a market for British goods, supporting mercantilist policies that aimed to increase national wealth. Expansion of Territory: Establishing colonies allowed Britain to expand its territory and influence, competing with other European powers for land and resources. Religious Freedom: Some colonies, like Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, were founded by groups seeking religious freedom from persecution in England. Strategic Interests: Colonies provided strategic military outposts and trading hubs, which were important for maintaining naval power and trade routes. Social Experimentation: Colonization offered opportunities for social and political experimentation, including the establishment of various forms of governance and societal organization. The Declaration of Independence  The Declaration of Independence, adopted on July 4, 1776, is a document in which the thirteen American colonies declared their independence from British rule, asserting that all men are created equal and possess unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It outlines grievances against King George III, justifying the colonies' break from British authority and establishing a foundation for American democracy. Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation (name 2) Lack of Central Authority: The federal government had no power to enforce laws or collect taxes, leading to financial instability and difficulty in funding government operations. Inability to Regulate Commerce: The Articles did not grant the central government the power to regulate interstate or international trade, resulting in economic disarray and conflicts between states over trade policies. Successes of the Articles of Confederation (name 2) Northwest Ordinance: The Articles facilitated the passage of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established a method for admitting new states to the Union and set a precedent for the expansion of the United States. Successful Diplomatic Relations: The Articles allowed the United States to conduct diplomacy and negotiate the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which formally ended the Revolutionary War and recognized American independence. Connecticut Compromise The Connecticut Compromise, also known as the Great Compromise, was reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and established a bicameral legislature in the United States. It combined proportional representation in the House of Representatives with equal representation in the Senate, balancing the interests of both large and small states. Most important (largest) compromise at the Constitutional Convention The most important compromise at the Constitutional Convention was the Connecticut Compromise, or Great Compromise. It established a bicameral legislature, balancing representation by population in the House of Representatives with equal representation for each state in the Senate, which was crucial for securing agreement between large and small states. Federalists Federalists were proponents of the U.S. Constitution during the ratification debates, advocating for a strong central government to ensure order and address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Key figures like Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay defended their position through the Federalist Papers, emphasizing the need for a more effective federal system. Anti-Federalists Anti-Federalists were opponents of the U.S. Constitution during the ratification debates, fearing that a strong central government would threaten individual liberties  and state sovereignty. They argued for a more decentralized system and the inclusion of a Bill of Rights to protect citizens' freedoms, leading to significant debates about the structure of government in the early United States. James Madison James Madison was a key Founding Father and the fourth President of the United States, serving from 1809 to 1817. He is best known for his role in drafting the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights, as well as his contributions to the Federalist Papers, which advocated for the ratification of the Constitution. Madison is often referred to as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in shaping the nation's founding document and his efforts to establish a strong federal government. George Washington George Washington was the first President of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797, and is often referred to as the "Father of His Country." He played a crucial role in the American Revolutionary War as the commander of the Continental Army and was a leading figure at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where he advocated for a strong federal government. Washington's leadership and commitment to democratic principles helped establish key precedents for the presidency and the functioning of the new nation. Expressed Powers Expressed powers are those specifically granted to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution. These powers are clearly outlined in the document, particularly in Article I, Section 8, and include abilities such as regulating interstate commerce, coining money, declaring war, and conducting foreign affairs. Expressed powers provide a clear framework for the authority and responsibilities of the federal government. Delegated Powers Delegated powers are those specifically assigned to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution, encompassing both expressed powers and implied powers necessary to execute those expressed powers. These powers ensure that key responsibilities, such as regulating commerce and conducting foreign relations, are managed at the federal level rather than by individual states. Implied Powers of the National government Implied powers are those not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution but are necessary for the federal government to carry out its expressed powers. Derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause (also known as the Elastic Clause), implied powers allow the government to take actions that are deemed essential to executing its constitutional responsibilities, such as establishing a national bank to manage currency and federal finances. Inherent Powers of the National Government Inherent powers are those powers that the national government possesses simply because it is a sovereign state. These powers are not explicitly outlined in the Constitution but are essential for the government to function effectively, such as the ability to control immigration, acquire territory, and conduct foreign relations.  Inherent powers are derived from the nature of national sovereignty and the responsibilities of the government to protect and serve its citizens. Powers denied to the National Government Powers denied to the national government are those explicitly prohibited by the U.S. Constitution to protect individual rights and maintain the balance of power between state and federal authorities. Examples include the prohibition on passing ex post facto laws and bills of attainder, as well as the restriction against denying citizens the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Reserved Powers Reserved powers are those powers that are not explicitly granted to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution and are instead retained by the states. According to the Tenth Amendment, these powers include responsibilities such as regulating education, conducting elections, and managing local governments, allowing states to address issues specific to their needs and populations. Federalist Papers The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay between 1787 and 1788 to promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. These essays explain the principles of the Constitution, advocate for a strong federal government, and address concerns raised by Anti-Federalists, making a compelling case for the new framework of government. The Federalist Papers remain an important source for understanding the intentions of the Founding Fathers and the foundational principles of American government. Necessary and Proper Clause The Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the Elastic Clause, is found in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution. It grants Congress the authority to make all laws that are necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers, allowing for flexibility in governance and enabling the federal government to adapt to changing needs and circumstances. This clause has been the basis for expanding federal power through implied powers. Ratification Ratification is the formal approval process by which a proposed law, amendment, or treaty is officially accepted and enacted. In the context of the U.S. Constitution, ratification required the approval of nine out of thirteen states to become effective, leading to significant debates between Federalists, who supported the Constitution, and Anti-Federalists, who opposed it. Rights Rights are entitlements or permissions granted to individuals, often established by law, moral principles, or social norms. In the context of the U.S., rights include civil liberties, such as freedom of speech and religion, as well as political rights, like the right to vote, which are protected by the Constitution and its amendments. State Sovereignty State sovereignty refers to the authority of individual states to govern themselves independently, free from external interference. In the context of the United States, it  emphasizes the power of states to make and enforce their own laws, manage local affairs, and uphold the rights of their citizens, while still being part of the larger federal system. Concurrent powers Concurrent powers are those powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments. These powers include the ability to tax, borrow money, establish courts, and regulate commerce, allowing both levels of government to operate in areas that affect the public. Concurrent powers ensure a cooperative relationship between federal and state authorities in managing various aspects of governance. The Supremacy Clause and how it relates to the hierarchy of laws The Supremacy Clause is found in Article VI, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution and establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties made under its authority are the supreme law of the land. This means that in cases of conflict between federal and state laws, federal law takes precedence, creating a hierarchy where federal law overrides state law. The Supremacy Clause ensures a uniform legal framework across the nation while maintaining the authority of state governments to legislate in areas not reserved for the federal government. Preamble The Preamble is the introductory statement of the U.S. Constitution that outlines its fundamental purposes and guiding principles. It begins with the phrase "We the People" and emphasizes the goals of establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, providing for the common defense, promoting the general welfare, and securing the blessings of liberty to both current and future generations. The Preamble sets the tone for the Constitution and reflects the intentions of the Founding Fathers in creating a more perfect union. Unalienable Rights Unalienable rights are fundamental rights that are considered inherent and cannot be taken away or denied. In the context of the Declaration of Independence, these rights include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, emphasizing that they are granted by nature or a creator and are essential to human dignity and freedom. Social Contract The social contract is a philosophical concept that describes an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and establish a government in exchange for protection and the preservation of their rights. It suggests that individuals consent to give up some personal freedoms in exchange for the benefits of collective governance, thereby legitimizing the authority of the government. Prominent thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau have contributed to this idea, influencing modern political thought about the relationship between citizens and the state. Use the Essential Understanding & Vocabulary to help you study as well. Answer the following questions using your notes and worksheets from class. This is not 100% inclusive of everything you need to know, but it will help guide you in test preparation. Essential Understanding Know the order of the major documents/events in US History. Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, Constitution of United States, Bill of Rights, Marbury v. Madison, Missouri Compromise, Compromise of 1850. What are the 4 purposes of government? Be able to give examples Maintaining Order: Governments establish laws and regulations to prevent chaos and ensure public safety. For example, law enforcement agencies enforce laws against theft, violence, and disorderly conduct. Providing Security: Governments protect citizens from external threats and aggression. For example, the military defends the nation against foreign invasions and terrorist attacks. Providing Public Services: Governments provide essential services that benefit the public and contribute to the common good. Examples include public education, infrastructure (like roads and bridges), and healthcare services. Promoting the General Welfare: Governments create policies aimed at improving the quality of life for citizens. This can include social programs, economic regulations, and environmental protections, such as Social Security, minimum wage laws, and clean air regulations. What is the difference between a Representative Democracy and a Direct Democracy? Representative Democracy: In this system, citizens elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on their behalf. These representatives are accountable to the electorate and are expected to reflect the views and interests of their constituents. Examples include the United States and most modern democracies. Direct Democracy: In a direct democracy, citizens participate directly in decision-making and legislation, rather than through elected representatives. This can occur through mechanisms like referendums or initiatives, where voters directly vote on specific issues or policies. An example of direct democracy can be seen in some Swiss cantons or in local town meetings in certain areas. What are the three systems of government that the US has experienced? Explain each one. Confederal System: Under the Articles of Confederation (1781-1789), the U.S. operated as a confederation where individual states held most of the power, and the central government was weak. The federal government had limited authority, primarily to conduct foreign affairs and manage war efforts, but it lacked the power to tax or regulate commerce effectively. This system led to challenges in governance and coordination among the states. Federal System: With the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1789, the country adopted a federal system, which divides power between the national and state governments. In this system, both levels of government have their own responsibilities and can enact laws within their respective domains. The Constitution establishes the framework for this relationship, allowing for a balance of power and ensuring that certain powers are reserved for states while others are delegated to the federal government. Unitary System: While not officially adopted, elements of a unitary system can be seen in some aspects of U.S. governance, particularly in federal oversight and regulations that influence state policies. In a unitary system, power is concentrated in a central authority, with regional or local governments acting primarily as extensions of the central government. This is in contrast to the federal system, where states have significant autonomy.  When did the US experience each of the ones above? Confederal System: The U.S. operated under a confederal system from 1781, when the Articles of Confederation were ratified, until 1789, when the Constitution was adopted. During this period, the states retained most of the power, and the central government had limited authority. Federal System: The federal system began with the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1789, establishing a stronger national government with shared powers between federal and state authorities. This system has been in place since then, although it has evolved over time through amendments and judicial interpretations. Unitary System: While the U.S. has not formally adopted a unitary system, elements of it can be observed in certain policies and practices at various points in history, particularly during periods of increased federal authority, such as during the New Deal in the 1930s and the civil rights movement in the 1960s. These examples illustrate how the federal government has exerted influence over state policies. Accurately explain the US political history in the four stages. Colonial Period and Independence (1607-1783): Colonists settled in America for opportunity and freedom but grew frustrated with British rule. This tension led to the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Articles of Confederation and Constitution (1781-1789): After independence, the Articles of Confederation created a weak government. Recognizing its flaws, leaders drafted the U.S. Constitution in 1787, establishing a stronger federal government, which was ratified in 1788. Expansion and Division (1789-1865): The U.S. expanded westward, but conflicts over slavery increased tensions. Efforts to balance free and slave states failed, leading to the Civil War from 1861 to 1865. Reconstruction and Modern Developments (1865-present): After the Civil War, the Reconstruction era aimed to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people. Since then, the U.S. has faced changes like industrialization, civil rights movements, and global influences, shaping its political landscape. Know the compromises of the US Constitution. 3/5ths, Connecticut, Slavery Debate, Bill of Rights Three-Fifths Compromise: This compromise was reached during the Constitutional Convention in 1787, determining how slaves would be counted for representation and taxation purposes. It established that three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted when apportioning representatives in Congress, balancing the interests of slaveholding states and those opposed to slavery. Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise): This compromise combined elements of the Virginia Plan (which favored larger states) and the New Jersey Plan (which favored smaller states). It created a bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate granting equal representation to each state, ensuring a balance of power. Slavery Debate: The debate over slavery during the Constitutional Convention included various compromises, such as the decision to allow the importation of slaves for another 20 years and the aforementioned Three-Fifths Compromise. The issue of slavery created significant divisions that would later contribute to the Civil War. Bill of Rights: Ratified in 1791, the Bill of Rights is a series of ten amendments added to the Constitution to protect individual liberties. This compromise addressed concerns from Anti-Federalists who feared a strong federal government might infringe on personal freedoms, ensuring protections like freedom of speech, religion, and the right to bear arms. Explain the federal system of the United States. The federal system of the United States divides power between the national and state governments, allowing both levels to govern concurrently in their respective areas. The  Constitution outlines specific powers for the federal government while reserving others for the states, creating a balance that helps maintain local autonomy. This system enables the federal government to address national issues, such as defense and immigration, while states manage local matters like education and transportation. Briefly explain the different forms of government Democracy: Power is held by the people, who elect representatives or make decisions through direct voting. Two types are: Direct democracy: Citizens vote directly on laws and policies. Representative democracy: Citizens elect officials to represent them in decision-making (example., the U.S.). Republic: Similar to a representative democracy, but with a strong emphasis on rule of law and often a constitution limiting government power (example., the U.S., India). Monarchy: Power is inherited and held by a king or queen. There are two types: Absolute monarchy: The monarch has almost complete control (example., Saudi Arabia). Constitutional monarchy: The monarch's powers are limited by a constitution or laws, with elected officials running the government (example., the U.K.). Authoritarianism: Power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler or a small group, with little to no input from the people (example., North Korea). Totalitarianism: A more extreme form of authoritarianism where the government controls almost every aspect of public and private life (example., Stalinist Soviet Union). Theocracy: A government based on religious principles, where religious leaders control political decisions (example., Iran). Oligarchy: A small group of people, often from the military, wealthy elites, or powerful families, control the government (example., ancient Sparta). Communism: In theory, a classless society where all property is owned communally, but in practice, it often leads to a single-party authoritarian state (example., China, Cuba). List problems with the Articles of Confederation. How did the Constitution fix the above problems? Weak Central Government Problem: The national government under the Articles had very limited power. It could not enforce laws or decisions, making it ineffective in governing the states. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution created a stronger federal government with separate branches (executive, legislative, judicial) and the power to enforce laws. 2. No Executive Branch Problem: There was no president or executive branch to enforce laws or oversee the government’s operations. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution established the office of the President, creating an executive branch to enforce laws and manage government affairs. 3. No Power to Tax  Problem: The national government could not levy taxes and had to rely on voluntary contributions from the states, leading to severe financial problems. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution gave Congress the power to levy taxes, ensuring the federal government had the funds needed to operate. 4. No Regulation of Interstate Commerce Problem: The Articles allowed each state to control its own trade policies, leading to conflicts and inefficiencies between states. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution gave Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, creating a unified trade policy. 5. Unanimous Consent Required for Amendments Problem: Amendments to the Articles required unanimous consent from all 13 states, making it nearly impossible to adapt or change laws. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution made it easier to amend, requiring a two-thirds majority in Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. 6. No National Court System Problem: There was no federal judiciary to resolve disputes between states or interpret laws. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution established a national court system, including the Supreme Court, to interpret laws and resolve disputes. 7. Lack of Military Power Problem: The national government had no authority to raise a standing army, leaving the country vulnerable to external threats and internal rebellions (e.g., Shays' Rebellion). Constitution's Fix: The Constitution granted Congress the power to raise and maintain a military to defend the country. 8. Inconsistent Currency Problem: Each state could issue its own currency, leading to confusion and economic instability. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution gave the federal government the sole power to coin money, creating a uniform national currency. 9. Weak Legislative Structure Problem: The Articles had a unicameral (one-house) legislature with each state having one vote, regardless of size or population. Constitution's Fix: The Constitution created a bicameral (two-house) legislature, with representation in the House based on population and equal representation in the Senate. What led to the development of the Federalists and Antifederalists? The development of the Federalists and Antifederalists arose during the debate over ratifying the U.S. Constitution. Federalists supported a strong central government, while Antifederalists feared it would lead to tyranny, preferring stronger state powers and demanding a Bill of Rights to protect individual freedoms. What was the purpose of the Federalist and Antifederalist Papers?  The Federalist Papers aimed to persuade citizens and states to support the ratification of the U.S. Constitution by explaining and defending the need for a stronger central government. In contrast, the Antifederalist Papers sought to warn against potential dangers of the proposed Constitution, advocating for stronger state rights and the inclusion of a Bill of Rights to safeguard individual liberties. Explain how each group (Feds/Anti Feds) felt about the extent of the power of the national government. Federalists believed in a strong national government with the authority to effectively manage the country's affairs, including regulating commerce, raising taxes, and maintaining a military. Antifederalists, on the other hand, feared that too much centralized power would threaten individual freedoms and state sovereignty, advocating for more power to remain with the states. Explain why the Federalists can be said to have won the overall debate about the Constitution. In other words, what did the Federalists win? The Federalists won the overall debate by securing the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, establishing a strong national government with the powers they advocated for, such as taxation, regulation of commerce, and a federal judiciary. Although they compromised by agreeing to add the Bill of Rights—a key demand of the Antifederalists—the core framework of the government remained aligned with Federalist principles, ensuring a powerful federal structure. During the debate for the Constitution, what did the Antifederalists demand? Why did they demand this? During the debate over the Constitution, the Antifederalists demanded the inclusion of a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties and prevent potential government overreach. They feared that without explicit protections, the strong national government created by the Constitution could become tyrannical and infringe on the rights of citizens and states. What was the ultimate compromise between the Federalists and Antifederalists? (List both sides) The ultimate compromise between the Federalists and Antifederalists was the agreement to add the Bill of Rights to the Constitution after its ratification. Federalists: Agreed to add the Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties, while still securing a strong central government through the ratification of the Constitution. Antifederalists: Accepted the Constitution's ratification in exchange for the promise that the first Congress would introduce amendments (the Bill of Rights) to protect individual freedoms and limit government power.  Government Politics + Elections STUDY GUIDE Vocabulary: Electoral College: A body of representatives from each state who formally cast votes for the President and Vice President. Federalists: Supporters of the Constitution who favored a strong central government. Anti-Federalists: Opponents of the Constitution who advocated for states' rights and feared a strong central government. Federalist Paper #10: An essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic can best control factions and protect minority rights. Nomination: The process by which political parties select their candidates for an election. General Election: A nationwide election where voters choose officeholders. Self-Announcement: When a person declares themselves a candidate for public office. Petition: A formal request signed by voters to qualify a candidate or initiative for the ballot. Popular Vote: The total votes cast by citizens in an election. Electoral Votes: Votes cast by members of the Electoral College to determine the President and Vice President. Liberal vs Conservative: Ideological perspectives where liberals favor progressive change and government intervention, while conservatives prioritize tradition and limited government. Republicans: A major political party generally associated with conservative policies. Democrats: A major political party generally associated with liberal policies. Platform: A political party's formal statement of its principles, goals, and policy positions. Caucus: A meeting of party members to select candidates or discuss policy. Third Parties: Political parties outside the two major parties that focus on specific issues or alternative platforms. Plurality: When a candidate wins an election by receiving more votes than any other, but not necessarily a majority. Exit Poll: Surveys conducted outside polling places to predict election outcomes and analyze voter behavior. 12th Amendment: Changed the process of electing the President and Vice President to separate votes in the Electoral College. 15th Amendment: Guaranteed voting rights regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 17th Amendment: Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by voters. 19th Amendment: Granted women the right to vote. 24th Amendment: Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections. 26th Amendment: Lowered the voting age to 18. Returns: The official results of an election. Congressional District: A geographic area within a state represented by one member in the House of Representatives. Electorate: All eligible voters in an election. Elbridge Gerry: A politician whose name is associated with gerrymandering, the manipulation of electoral boundaries for political gain. Cracking: A gerrymandering tactic that spreads opposition voters across many districts to dilute their influence. Packing: A gerrymandering tactic that concentrates opposition voters in one district to minimize their influence elsewhere. Baker v Carr: A Supreme Court case that established the principle of "one person, one vote" in legislative redistricting. Initiative: A process where citizens propose legislation or amendments for a vote through a petition. Wesberry v Sanders: A Supreme Court case requiring congressional districts to have roughly equal populations. Shaw v Reno: A Supreme Court case ruling that redistricting based on race must meet strict scrutiny. Referendum: A direct vote by citizens on a proposed law or amendment. Recall: A process allowing voters to remove an elected official from office before their term ends. Canvassing: Campaigning by directly contacting voters to solicit votes or share information. Public Opinion: The collective attitudes and beliefs of the public about issues or candidates. Public Agenda: The issues and priorities that receive attention from the public and policymakers. Winner-Take-All System: An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins all of a state's electoral votes or a district's representation. Content: What type of party system does the United States have? The United States has a two-party system dominated by the Democratic and Republican parties. What are the factors that can influence party membership? Party membership can be influenced by family, education, occupation, economic status, religion, major events, and personal beliefs. The first Republican to serve as President of the U.S. was: Abraham Lincoln. What are the types of third parties? The types of third parties include single-issue parties, ideological parties, economic protest parties, and splinter parties. List all examples of third parties discussed in class: Examples include the Green Party, Libertarian Party, Constitution Party, and Reform Party. Why do third party candidates have difficulty winning elections? Third-party candidates face challenges such as lack of funding, limited media coverage, the winner-take-all electoral system, and ballot access restrictions. Explain the different types of direct primaries: Direct primaries include closed primaries, where only registered party members can vote, and open primaries, where any voter can participate regardless of party affiliation. What happens at the National Convention? At the National Convention, parties officially nominate their presidential and vice-presidential candidates, adopt their party platform, and unite the party for the upcoming election. What is the difference between open and closed primaries? In open primaries, voters of any party or no party can participate, while in closed primaries, only registered party members can vote. What are the different functions of Political Parties? Political parties nominate candidates, organize elections, provide voter information, govern, and act as watchdogs against the opposition. Describe the Characteristics of Early voters in the United States: Early voters are often older, better educated, wealthier, and more politically engaged. Three requirements to vote in the United States: To vote, you must be a U.S. citizen, meet your state’s residency requirements, and be at least 18 years old by Election Day. The two most common types of voting machines: Optical scan machines and direct-recording electronic (DRE) machines. Why do people request absentee ballots? People request absentee ballots if they are unable to vote in person due to being out of town, ill, disabled, or serving in the military. Reasons why people do not vote: People may not vote due to lack of interest, feeling their vote doesn’t matter, registration difficulties, or logistical issues like work or transportation. Reasons why people do vote: People vote to express their civic duty, influence government, support a candidate or issue, or because they believe their voice matters in shaping the future. Government The Legislative Branch Study Guide Vocabulary: The Legislative Branch - The branch of government that makes laws. It includes Congress, which has two parts: the House of Representatives and the Senate. House of Representatives - The lower house of Congress where the number of representatives is based on a state's population. Members serve two-year terms. Senate - The upper house of Congress where each state has two senators, regardless of size. Senators serve six-year terms. Bill - A proposed law presented to Congress for approval. It must pass both the House and Senate before becoming law. Veto - The president’s power to reject a bill passed by Congress. Congress can override it with a two-thirds vote. Committee - A group of legislators who review and revise bills. Most bills are studied by committees before reaching a full vote. Legislative - Related to making laws. It describes the work done by Congress. Legislator - A person who makes laws, such as a member of Congress. Legislature - A group of elected officials with the power to make laws. In the U.S., Congress is the federal legislature. Upper House and its characteristics - The Senate, known for equal state representation and longer terms (6 years). Senators confirm appointments and approve treaties. Lower House and its characteristics - The House of Representatives, known for proportional representation and shorter terms (2 years). It handles bills related to taxes and spending. 17th Amendment - Allowed voters to directly elect senators. Before this, state legislatures chose them. Additional Powers (House and Senate) - The House can initiate tax bills and impeach officials; the Senate confirms appointments, ratifies treaties, and conducts impeachment trials. Steps of Making a Law - A bill is introduced, reviewed by committees, debated, voted on, and sent to the president for approval. Census - A count of the population every 10 years. It determines how many House representatives each state gets. Bicameral - A legislature with two chambers, like the House and Senate. This structure balances power between large and small states. Constituents - The people legislators represent. Legislators consider their opinions when making decisions. Gerrymander - Redrawing voting district lines to benefit a political party. It can affect election outcomes. Expressed Powers - Powers specifically listed in the Constitution. Examples include the power to tax and regulate trade. Implied Powers - Powers not directly stated in the Constitution but needed to carry out expressed powers. They come from the “Necessary and Proper” Clause. Impeach - To formally charge a government official with wrongdoing. The House initiates it, and the Senate conducts the trial. Filibuster - A tactic used in the Senate to delay a vote by speaking for a long time. It can be ended with a 60-vote majority. Content: The Great Compromise: An agreement during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that created a bicameral legislature. It combined the Virginia Plan (representation by population) and the New Jersey Plan (equal representation) by forming the House of Representatives (based on population) and the Senate (equal representation). Number of Congresspersons in each house: 100 in senate, and 435 in Representatives How many congresspersons represent the State of California in each House? The House has 52 members, the Senate has 2. Specific Names of Congressmen who represent you: Mark DeSaulnier - Representative How often is the Census taken? Every 10 Years. Describe the term length of members of the House as well as Senators: House of Representatives: 2-year terms. Senate: 6-year terms. Describe the role of the Speaker of the House: The Speaker leads the House of Representatives, sets the legislative agenda, and presides over debates. They are second in line for the presidency after the Vice President. Describe important legislative powers of congress: Congress can make laws, impose taxes, declare war, regulate commerce, and approve the federal budget. Describe the most important non-Legislative power of Congress: The power to impeach and remove federal officials, including the president, for misconduct. List the U.S. Presidents who have been impeached: Has any president even been removed from office? Impeached Presidents: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump (twice). Removed from Office: No president has ever been removed from office by the Senate. Describe the U.S. Government’s Checks and balance system: The system ensures no branch becomes too powerful. The legislative branch makes laws, the executive branch enforces laws, and the judicial branch interprets laws. Each branch can limit the others (e.g., presidential veto, Congressional override, and judicial review). Describe the work of any Committee: Committees review proposed legislation, hold hearings, and make changes before a bill goes to the full House or Senate. For example, the House Ways and Means Committee deals with tax and revenue issues. Basic job of senators and representatives: Senators - Represent their entire state, propose and vote on laws, and approve treaties and appointments. Representatives - Represent their district, propose and vote on laws, and address local concerns. The most well-known task of Congress is: Making and passing laws. Describe the purpose of the Bill of rights in relation to the powers of federal government: The Bill of Rights protects individual freedoms and limits federal government power by guaranteeing rights such as free speech, due process, and protection from unreasonable searches. Who is the current Speaker of the House until the next Congress begins? Mike Johnson Describe the power Congress has in regards to government spending: Congress controls government spending through the power of the purse. It approves the federal budget, allocates funds, and oversees how money is spent. Short Answer/Written Essays: Directions: Section 4: (SHORT ANSWER) Read each of the following questions and answer them in paragraph form: 1. Describe three similarities and three main differences between the qualifications and privileges of members of the House and the Senate? The United States Congress is a bicameral legislature with two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Both chambers share the responsibility of making laws, proposing, debating, and voting on bills. For a bill to become law, it must be approved by both the House and the Senate and signed by the president. Members of both chambers take an oath to uphold the Constitution and enjoy privileges like immunity from arrest during sessions, except for serious crimes. They are also protected by the Speech and Debate Clause, allowing them to speak freely during official duties. Despite these similarities, the House and Senate have key differences. House members must be at least 25 years old and citizens for 7 years, while senators must be 30 and citizens for 9 years. House members serve 2-year terms, keeping them closely tied to local issues, while senators serve 6-year terms, allowing focus on national matters. House members represent districts within states, whereas senators represent entire states. These differences balance short-term and long-term perspectives in Congress, ensuring both local and national interests are considered. Together, the House and Senate work to create laws and represent the diverse needs of the American people.  2. Describe the process of a bill becoming a law. You can be creative and have the bill take any path you choose as long as it is explained thoroughly. The process of a bill becoming a law starts when a member of Congress introduces a bill in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. The bill is then assigned to a committee that specializes in the bill’s subject. The committee reviews, discusses, and may revise the bill before voting on whether to send it to the full chamber. If approved by the committee, the bill goes to the floor for debate and a vote. In the House, debate time is usually limited, while in the Senate, members can speak for as long as they wish, sometimes leading to a filibuster. If the bill passes in one chamber, it moves to the other chamber, where it goes through a similar committee review, debate, and voting process. If both the House and Senate approve the bill but with different versions, a conference committee resolves the differences and produces a final version. Both chambers must then vote on the final version. If the final version passes both the House and Senate, the bill is sent to the president. The president can sign the bill into law, veto it, or take no action. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers. If signed or the veto is overridden, the bill officially becomes a law. JUDICIAL BRANCH STUDY GUIDE VOCAB: Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in the United States, consisting of nine justices. It has the final say on interpreting the Constitution and federal laws. Anti Federalist concerns: Anti-Federalists feared a strong central government and wanted protections for states' rights and individual freedoms. Their concerns led to the creation of the Bill of Rights. Federal Judge: A federal judge is appointed to serve in a U.S. District Court, Court of Appeals, or Supreme Court. They are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Unofficial Requirements: Ivy Leagues degrees, Supreme Court Justice Clerkship, lower justice court. Textualist/Originalist: Textualists or Originalists believe the Constitution should be interpreted based on its original meaning when written. They focus on the exact words and historical context of the text. Living Constitutionalist: Living Constitutionalists believe the Constitution's meaning evolves over time. They adapt interpretations to address modern societal changes and values. Original Jurisdiction: Original jurisdiction allows a court to hear a case first, rather than on appeal. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases involving states or foreign diplomats. Article III: Article III of the Constitution establishes the judicial branch. It defines the powers and structure of the federal court system, including the Supreme Court. District Court: A District Court is the lowest level of the federal court system where trials are held. These courts handle civil and criminal cases under federal law. Court of Appeals: The Court of Appeals reviews decisions from District Courts. It does not hold trials but determines if legal errors occurred during the original case. Appellate Jurisdiction: Appellate jurisdiction is the authority to review and revise the decision of a lower court. Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court exercise this power. Circuit: A circuit refers to a regional division in the federal Court of Appeals system. There are 13 circuits that handle appeals from specific geographic areas. Judicial Review: Judicial review allows courts to determine if laws or actions violate the Constitution. This power was established by the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison (1803). Majority Opinion: The majority opinion explains the Supreme Court's decision and reasoning, supported by most of the justices. It sets a legal precedent for future cases. Dissenting Opinion: A dissenting opinion is written by justices who disagree with the majority decision. It explains their reasoning and offers an alternative perspective. Current Court (Members and Leaning): The current Supreme Court has nine justices: six conservative-leaning (Roberts, Thomas, Alito, Gorsuch, Kavanaugh, Barrett) and three liberal-leaning (Sotomayor, Kagan, Jackson). This conservative majority influences the court's rulings on major issues. 1. List the three levels of the Federal Court System: District Court, Court of Appeals, Supreme Court 2. What level of Court hears the majority of legal disputes in the United States? District Courts handle most legal disputes, including federal trials and lawsuits. These are the first level of the federal court system. 3. List the types of cases Federal Courts have jurisdiction over: Federal courts handle cases involving federal law, the Constitution, disputes between states, and cases involving the U.S. government. They also oversee cases with foreign governments or citizens from different states. 4. The lowest level of the federal court system where trials are held and lawsuits are begun is: The District Court is the lowest level of the federal court system where trials start. 5. What type of Jurisdiction does the District Court have? District Courts have original jurisdiction, meaning they hear cases first before any appeals. 7. Who appoints District Court/Court of Appeals Judges? The President appoints these judges, and they must be confirmed by the Senate. 9. What court is above the District Court in the Federal Court System? The Court of Appeals is the next level above the District Court. 10. What type of Jurisdiction does the U.S. court of appeals have? The U.S. The Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction, meaning it reviews decisions from lower courts. 11. Why did congress establish the U.S. courts of appeals? Congress created these courts to reduce the Supreme Court's workload and handle appeals from District Courts. 12. What do Appeals Courts Judges do? They review lower court decisions to determine if legal errors occurred during the trial. 13. What rulings can an Appeals Court panel make? They can uphold, reverse, or send back the lower court's decision. 14. What types of Cases does the Supreme Court hear? The Supreme Court hears cases involving constitutional issues, federal law, and major disputes between states. 15. Can Supreme Court rulings be appealed? No, Supreme Court rulings are final and cannot be appealed. 16. How can Congress avoid Supreme Court rulings? Congress can pass new laws or propose constitutional amendments to counter Supreme Court decisions. 17. How many justices make up the Supreme Court? There are nine justices on the Supreme Court. 18. Who is the United States Chief Justice? The current Chief Justice is John Roberts. The Executive Branch STUDY GUIDE Vocabulary: The Executive Branch: The Executive Branch enforces the laws and is headed by the President of the United States. It includes the Vice President, Cabinet, and various federal agencies. POTUS: POTUS stands for President of the United States, the head of the Executive Branch. The President serves as the nation's chief decision-maker and leader. Prime Minister vs President: A Prime Minister leads a parliamentary government and is chosen by the legislature. A President leads a republic, often elected directly by the people. Commander in Chief: The President serves as the Commander in Chief of the military. This role gives the President authority over military operations and decisions. Chief Legislator: The President influences lawmaking by proposing bills and signing or vetoing legislation. They work closely with Congress to shape the legislative agenda. Chief Diplomat: The President directs U.S. foreign policy and negotiates with other countries. They represent the U.S. in international matters. Chief of the Party: The President acts as the leader of their political party. They support party candidates and help set the party's agenda. Chief Executive: As Chief Executive, the President ensures laws are carried out and oversees federal agencies. They also appoint officials to lead departments. Chief of State: The President serves as a symbolic representative of the United States. This role involves performing ceremonial duties, like hosting state dinners. Chief Citizen: The President represents the American people and promotes public interests. They are expected to act as a role model for citizens. Chief Guardian of the Economy: The President monitors the economy and works to promote growth. They propose policies to reduce unemployment and manage federal spending. Executive Departments: Executive Departments are specialized government agencies, like the Department of Defense. They help the President carry out policies. War Powers Act: The War Powers Act limits the President's ability to send troops into combat without Congress's approval. It requires troop withdrawal after 60 days unless Congress grants an extension. “Leader of the Free World”: This informal title refers to the President’s role as a global leader promoting democracy and freedom. It highlights the U.S.'s influence on world affairs. Vice President: The Vice President supports the President and serves as President of the Senate. They step in if the President cannot perform their duties. Executive Agreements: Executive agreements are international agreements made by the President without Senate approval. They are typically less formal than treaties. Executive Privilege: Executive privilege allows the President to keep certain communications private. This ensures confidentiality for national security and decision-making. 22nd Amendment: The 22nd Amendment limits the President to two terms in office. It was passed after Franklin D. Roosevelt's four-term presidency. 25th Amendment: The 25th Amendment outlines presidential succession and procedures if the President becomes unable to serve. It allows the Vice President to assume the role temporarily or permanently. Executive order: An executive order is a directive issued by the President that has the force of law. It allows the President to manage federal operations without Congress. Pardon: A pardon is an official forgiveness for a crime granted by the President. It removes legal penalties for the offense. Treaties: Treaties are formal agreements between countries. They require approval by two-thirds of the Senate to take effect. Ambassador: An ambassador is an official representative of a country who works in foreign nations. They handle diplomatic relations on behalf of their government. Cabinet: The Cabinet is a group of advisers chosen by the President to lead executive departments. They assist in making decisions and implementing policies. Federal Bureaucracy: The federal bureaucracy consists of government agencies and departments that carry out laws and policies. It includes millions of employees who handle day-to-day operations. Political Appointees: Political appointees are chosen by the President to hold key government positions. They typically serve for the duration of the President's term. Content: Requirements to Become U.S. President: A candidate must be at least 35 years old, a natural-born U.S. citizen, and a resident of the U.S. for at least 14 years. How often is the Presidential Election? How long is one Presidential Term? What is the Term limit for the Presidential Office? Presidential elections occur every four years. One presidential term is four years, and the term limit is two terms (set by the 22nd Amendment). How is the number of Electoral Votes for a State Decided? Each state’s electoral votes equal its number of Senators (2) plus its number of Representatives in the House, which varies based on population. How many electoral Votes are needed to win in a Presidential Election? A candidate needs 270 electoral votes to win the presidency out of 538 total votes. What are the official duties of the Vice President? The Vice President serves as President of the Senate and casts a tie-breaking vote. They also take over if the President cannot perform their duties. Describe the Presidential Succession List: 1. Vice President 2. Speaker of the House 3. President Pro Tempore of the Senate 4. Cabinet members, starting with the Secretary of State. Describe the President’s role as Legislative Leader: The President proposes legislation, works with Congress to pass laws, and can sign or veto bills. Describe the Constitutional Powers of the President: The President can veto legislation, appoint federal judges, negotiate treaties, and serve as Commander in Chief of the armed forces. What is the State of the Union Address? An annual speech where the President outlines the nation's current status and legislative goals to Congress. What is the Executive Office of the President responsible for? The EOP assists the President in executing policies, managing tasks, and advising on important issues. What is the largest EOP agency? The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is the largest agency in the Executive Office of the President. Describe the National Security Council: The NSC advises the President on national security and foreign policy matters. It includes the Vice President, Secretaries of State and Defense, and other key officials. Who is the most important official in the White House Office? The Chief of Staff is the most important official, managing the President's schedule and overseeing White House operations. Main job of the Office of Management and Budget is: The OMB prepares the federal budget and monitors spending by executive agencies. Main job of the National Security Council: The NSC’s main job is to advise the President on national security and foreign policy issues. 4 Members of the Inner Cabinet are:  1. Secretary of State 2. Secretary of the Treasury 3. Secretary of Defense 4. Attorney General Short Answer/Written Essays: Directions: Section 4: (SHORT ANSWER) Read each of the following questions and answer them in paragraph form. 1. Choose 4 of the President's 7 roles studied in class? Describe the President’s job in each of the four roles chosen, using as many details as possible/vocabulary to enhance your score. Also include at least one specific example of the President in each of the 4 roles you chose to describe. One of the President’s key roles is Commander in Chief, where they lead the U.S. military and oversee defense operations. This includes making critical decisions during wartime and deploying troops when necessary. For example, President Franklin D. Roosevelt served as Commander in Chief during World War II, coordinating military strategy with Allied forces to defeat the Axis powers. As Chief Diplomat, the President shapes U.S. foreign policy and represents the nation in international affairs. They negotiate treaties, sign executive agreements, and meet with foreign leaders to maintain global relationships. For instance, President Richard Nixon visited China in 1972, a diplomatic move that improved relations between the two countries. In the role of Chief Legislator, the President influences Congress by proposing legislation and either signing bills into law or vetoing them. They also address Congress during the annual State of the Union to outline legislative priorities. President Lyndon B. Johnson, for example, signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a major piece of legislation aimed at ending racial discrimination. Lastly, as Chief Executive, the President ensures that federal laws are faithfully executed and oversees the operations of the federal government. This includes appointing heads of executive departments and federal agencies. For example, President George Washington established the first Cabinet, appointing leaders to manage key departments like State, Treasury, and War.