Unit 3 - Period 3: 1754-1800 PDF

UNIT 3 — Period 3: 1754–1800 Topic 3.1 Contextualizing Period 3 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity. In the 150 years after 1607, the 13 British colonies in...

UNIT 3 — Period 3: 1754–1800 Topic 3.1 Contextualizing Period 3 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity. In the 150 years after 1607, the 13 British colonies in North America began to develop an identity distinct from Great Britain. In the following 50 years, these colonies helped fight a war against France, won their own independence, wrote a constitution, and established a democratic republic. The transformation from colonies to a new country resulted from a change in how the British ruled their colonies, the impact of European affairs and ideas on the colonists, and the development of American leaders and people who wanted self-government. British-French Wars During the colonial period, the British and the French fought a series of wars for control of territory in Europe, the Americas, and South Asia. The last of these, the Seven Years’ War, began in North America in 1756. Because American Indians were heavily involved in defending their interests, and most allied with the French, this event is also known as the French and Indian War. The British victory in 1763 consolidated their control of North America and freed colonists from fear of French attacks. In addition, the contributions by the colonies reflected their political maturity. They became more confident of their ability to stand up for their interests. Colonial Independence To pay for the war, the British tried to collect more taxes from the colonies they were protecting. In contrast, many American colonists saw themselves as self-sufficient and were emboldened by “enlightened” thinking to call for greater self-governance. These clashing views caused the colonies to found a new nation. The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution Inspired by the republican ideals of the American Revolution, the new country was initially governed by the Articles of Confederation. However, the national government was so weak that people soon replaced it with a new constitution with a stronger federal government but reserved certain powers for the states. With the addition of the Bill of Rights, it protected basic individual liberties. This Constitution still provides the basis of the U.S. government today. Conflicting Views of Government Debates over the new constitution continued as policy debates under the first president, George Washington. 84 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Truly “Founding Fathers,” the leaders of the new government argued over the economy, individual rights, foreign affairs, relations with Native Americans, and the roles of the federal and state governments. By the end of Washington’s eight years in office, two political parties had emerged. The Democratic-Republicans argued for stronger state governments. The Federalists argued for a stronger federal government. After the Democratic- Republicans defeated the Federalists in the election of 1800, the young country faced a test of political stability. When the Federalists peacefully transferred power to their political rivals, the country passed the test. By 1820, the Federalists had disappeared as a party. However, their ideas continued to have influence through judges and later politicians. Changes in Economics, Politics, and Culture In the new country, immigrants continued to arrive. As people migrated westward in search of land and economic opportunities, they caused conflicts with the Native Americans living on those lands. The British, French, and Spanish who also claimed North American territory provided additional challenges. The United States had to defend its borders on land and its ships at sea in order to protect its economic and diplomatic interests. As the United States established its place as a new country, people began to form their own cultures. While the United States declared independence in 1776 and ratified the Constitution in 1788, it was not until after 1800 that a national identity could be recognized. ANALYZE THE CONTEXT 1. Explain a historical context for the changing relationship between the American colonists and the British government following the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War). 2. Explain a historical context for the development of new constitutions and declarations of rights by American political leaders after 1776. 3. Explain a historical context for understanding the regional differences over economic, political, social, and foreign issues that continued along with the formation of the new U.S. cultural and political institutions. LANDMARK LANDMARKEVENTS: EVENTS: 1750-1800 1750–1800 The Constitution The Alien and Sedition Acts Britain's Proclamation is ratified, and a The Treaty of makes deporting of 1763 limits colonial new government people easier and Paris ends the westward expansion. Revolutionary War. begins to form. restricts the press. 1763 1783 1788 1798 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1754 1776 1787 1789 The Seven Years' War The Declaration The passage George Washington (the French and Indian of Independence of the Northwest takes office as the War) begins. marks separation Ordinance expands country's first president. from Great Britain. the new nation. TOPIC 3.1 CONTEXTUALIZING PERIOD 3 85  Topic 3.2 The Seven Years’ War It is truly a miserable thing that we no sooner leave fighting our neighbors, the French, but we must fall to quarrelling among ourselves. Reverend Samuel Johnson, minister in Connecticut, 1763 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War). Historic European rivalries, particularly between Great Britain, France, and Spain, had been brought to North America by the earliest immigrants from those nations. While the basis for the conflict between these nations may be found in Europe, disputes between them in their colonies served to intensify their differences. While Britain eventually triumphed in a series of 18th century wars, victory was at a cost that they never could have imagined: the rebellion and the loss of their Atlantic coast colonies. Empires at War, 1689–1763 Late in the 17th century, a series of wars broke out involving Great Britain, France, and Spain. They were worldwide in scope, with battles in Europe, India, and North America, and they often involved other Europeans and natives of India and North America. The stakes were high for power in Europe and for control of colonies and their lucrative trade. In North America, the most valuable possessions were sugar-producing islands in the Caribbean Sea and the fur-trading network with American Indians in the interior of North America. The First Three Wars These conflicts occurred between 1689 and 1748 and were named after the British monarch under whose reign they occurred: In King William’s War (1689–1697), the British launched expeditions to capture Quebec from the French, but they failed. American Indians supported by the French burned British frontier settlements. In Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713), the British had more success. They gained both Nova Scotia from France and trading rights in Spanish America. 86 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  King George’s War (1744–1748) was named for George II. In Georgia, James Oglethorpe led a colonial army that repulsed Spanish attacks. New Englanders captured Louisbourg in Canada, a major French fortress on Cape Breton Island that controlled access to the St. Lawrence River. In the peace treaty ending the war, however, Britain returned Louisbourg to the French in exchange for political and economic gains in India. New Englanders were furious about the loss of a fort that they had fought so hard to win. The Decisive Conflict In the first three wars, European powers saw little value in committing regular troops to America. They relied on “amateur” colonial forces. Further, most of the fighting was in Europe. However, by 1754, when the fourth and decisive conflict began, conditions had changed. Great Britain and France recognized the great value of their colonies for the raw materials they produced. Only about 60,000 settlers lived in the French colonies, but they worked with Native Americans to carry on a valuable fur trade. The British colonies were more densely populated, with about 1.2 million people. They produced grain, fish, tobacco, lumber and other products that fueled British industry. The final war in this series was known in Europe as the Seven Years’ War. The North American phase of this war is often called the French and Indian War. It began in 1754 and ended in 1763. Beginning of the War From the British point of view, the French provoked the war by building a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley. One reason the French did so was to halt the westward growth of the British colonies. Hoping to stop the French from completing work on Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) and thereby win control of the Ohio River Valley, the governor of Virginia sent a small militia (armed force) under the command of a young colonel named George Washington. After gaining a small initial victory, Washington’s troops surrendered to a superior force of Frenchmen and their American Indian allies on July 3, 1754. With this military encounter in the wilderness, the final war for empire began. At first the war went badly for the British. In 1755, another expedition from Virginia, led by General Edward Braddock, ended in a disastrous defeat, as more than 2,000 British regulars and colonial troops were routed by a smaller force of both French troops and American Indians near Fort Duquesne. The Algonquin allies of the French ravaged the frontier from western Pennsylvania to North Carolina. The French repulsed a British invasion of French Canada that began in 1756. The Albany Plan of Union Recognizing the need for coordinating colonial defense, the British government had called for representatives from several colonies to meet in a congress at Albany, New York, in 1754. The delegates from seven colonies adopted an agreement—the Albany Plan of Union—developed by Benjamin Franklin that provided for an intercolonial TOPIC 3.2 THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR 87 government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the various colonies for their common defense. Each colony was too concerned about preserving its own taxation powers to accept the plan, however, and it never took effect. The Albany congress was significant, however, because it set a precedent for later, more revolutionary, congresses in the 1770s. British Victory The British prime minister, William Pitt, concentrated the government’s military strategy on conquering Canada. This objective was accomplished with the retaking of Louisbourg in 1758, the surrender of Quebec to General James Wolfe in 1759, and the taking of Montreal in 1760. After these British victories, the European powers negotiated a peace treaty (the Peace of Paris) in 1763. Great Britain acquired both French Canada and Spanish Florida. In compensation for Spain’s loss of Florida, France ceded (gave up) to Spain its huge territory west of the Mississippi River known as Louisiana. With this treaty, the British extended their control of North America, and French power on the continent virtually ended. Immediate Effects of the War Britain’s victory in the Seven Years’ War was a turning point in the military and diplomatic conflict for control of North America among the British, the French, the colonists, and various tribes of American Indians: It gave Great Britain unchallenged supremacy among Europeans in North America. It challenged the autonomy of many American Indians. It established the British as the dominant naval power in the world. It meant that the American colonies no longer faced the threat of concerted attacks from the French, the Spanish, and their American Indian allies. More important to the colonies, though, was a change in how the British and the colonists viewed each other. The British View of the War The British came away from the war with a low opinion of the colonial military abilities. They held the American militia in contempt as a poorly trained, disorderly rabble. Furthermore, they noted that some of the colonies had refused to contribute either troops or money to the war effort. Most British were convinced that the colonists were both unable and unwilling to defend the new frontiers of the vastly expanded British empire. The Colonial View of the War The colonists took an opposite view of their military performance. They were proud of their record in all four wars and developed confidence that they could successfully provide for their own defense. They were not impressed with the British troops or leadership, as their methods of warfare seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America. 88 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Reorganization of the British Empire More serious than the resentful feelings stirred by the war experience was the British government’s shift in its colonial policies. Previously, Britain had exercised little direct control over the colonies and had not enforced its navigation acts regulating colonial trade. This earlier policy of salutary neglect was abandoned as the British adopted more forceful policies for taking control of their expanded North American dominions. All four wars—and the last one in particular—had been extremely costly. In addition, Britain now felt the need to maintain a large British military force to guard its American frontiers. Among British landowners, pressure was building to reduce the heavy taxes that the government had levied to fund the colonial wars. To pay for troops to guard the frontier without increasing taxes at home, King George III and the dominant political party in Parliament (the Whigs) wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire. Pontiac’s Rebellion The first major test of the new British imperial policy came in 1763 when Chief Pontiac led an attack against colonial settlements on the western frontier. The American Indians were angered by the growing westward movement of European settlers onto their land and by the British refusal to offer gifts as the French had done. Pontiac’s alliance of American Indians in the Ohio River Valley destroyed forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces to retaliate, the British sent regular British troops to put down the uprising. Source: Getty Images. This engraving, made in 1876, portrays Chief Pontiac speaking to other Native American leaders about the need to unite to resist European settlements. Proclamation of 1763 In an effort to stabilize the western frontier, the British government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains (see map in Topic 3.3). The British hoped that limiting settlements would prevent future hostilities between colonists and American Indians. But the colonists reacted to the proclamation with anger and defiance. After the British victory in the Seven Years’ War, colonists hoped TOPIC 3.2 THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR 89 to reap benefits in the form of access to western lands. For the British to deny such benefits was infuriating. Defying the proclamation, thousands streamed westward past the imaginary boundary line drawn by the British. Growing British-Colonial Tensions The divergent views on the war and the changes in British imperial policies provided the context for conflict between Great Britain and its North American colonies. These conflicts would become more intense as the two sides debated issues of taxation and representation. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War). KEY TERMS BY THEME Empire (WOR, GEO) Peace of Paris (1763) Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War) salutary neglect George Washington American Indians (MIG) Edward Braddock Pontiac’s Rebellion Albany Plan of Union (1754) Proclamation of 1763 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “We apprehend [believe] that as freemen and English subjects, we have an indisputable title to the same privileges and immunities with His Majesty’s other subjects who reside in the interior counties... , and therefore ought not to be excluded from an equal share with them in the very important privilege of legislation.... We cannot but observe with sorrow and indignation that some persons in this province are at pains to extenuate [excuse] the barbarous cruelties practiced by these savages on our murdered brethren and relatives... by this means the Indians have been taught to despise us as a weak and disunited people, and from this fatal source have arisen many of our calamities.... We humbly pray therefore that this grievance may be redressed.” The Paxton Boys, to the Pennsylvania Assembly, 1764 90 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  1. The sentiments exhibited in this excerpt were most directly influenced by which of the following historical developments? (A) The Great Awakening (B) The Albany Plan of Union (C) The Seven Years’ War (D) The Enlightenment 2. The British had earlier attempted to solve the problem expressed in this excerpt most directly by (A) signing the treaty to end the French and Indian War (B) establishing a boundary between Indian lands and lands open for colonial settlement (C) passing a law that required colonists to house British soldiers (D) enforcing regulations on colonial trade after a period of not enforcing them 3. Which of the following individuals led a group that was in the most similar situation to the Paxton Boys? (A) John Smith because his supporters also wanted an equal share of privileges with other colonists (B) Roger Williams because his supporters also relied on prayer to have their problems solved (C) Nathaniel Bacon because his supporters also wanted stronger government action against American Indians (D) Edmund Andros because his supporters also disputed the power of the British monarch SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE historical event or development during the Seven Years’ War that demonstrated a fundamental change in the British view of its relationship with its American colonies. (b) Briefly explain ONE historical event or development during the Seven Years’ War that demonstrated a fundamental change in the colonial view of its relationship with its British government. (c) Briefly describe ONE historical event or development resulting from the changing views by either the British or the colonists. TOPIC 3.2 THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR 91  Topic 3.3 Taxation Without Representation The people, even to the lowest ranks, have become more attentive to their liberties, more inquisitive about them, and more determined to defend them. John Adams, 1765 Learning Objective: Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War. What caused American colonists in the 1760s to become, as John Adams expressed, “more attentive to their liberties”? The chief reason for their discontent in these years was a dramatic change in Britain’s colonial policy. Britain began to assert its power in the colonies and to collect taxes and enforce trade laws much more aggressively than in the past. While some colonists accepted these changes, others grew angry in defense of what they viewed as violations of their political rights and their ability to carry on trade and commerce freely. As anger spread, colonists from Massachusetts to Georgia began to unite in protest of British actions. British Actions and Colonial Reactions The Proclamation of 1763 was the first of a series of acts by the British government that angered colonists. From the British point of view, the acts were justified as a fair, proper method for protecting its colonial empire and making the colonies pay their share for such protection. From the colonists’ view, each act represented an alarming threat to their liberties. Colonists combined a desire to defend long-established practices in Britain of representative government, local self-rule, and individual rights with the influence of the newer ideas of the Enlightenment (see Topic 3.4). One of the core issues dividing the British and the colonists was the idea of representation: Colonists pointed out that they could not directly elect representatives to Parliament, so they had no way to consent to or oppose British actions. The British responded that the colonists, like all British citizens, had virtual representation in the government. According to this theory, all members of Parliament represented the interests of the entire empire, not just the small district that chose them. 92 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION New Revenues and Regulations In the first two years of peace, King George III’s chancellor of the exchequer (treasury) and prime minister, Lord George Grenville, successfully pushed through Parliament three measures that aroused colonial suspicions of a British plot to subvert their liberties. The Sugar Act (1764) This act (also known as the Revenue Act of 1764) placed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries. Its supporters wanted to regulate the sugar trade and to raise revenue. A companion law also provided for stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts to stop smuggling. Those accused of smuggling were to be tried in admiralty courts by crown-appointed judges without juries. The Quartering Act (1765) This act required the colonists to provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. The Stamp Act In an effort to raise funds to support British military forces in the colonies, Lord Grenville turned to a tax long in use in Britain. The Stamp Act, enacted by Parliament in 1765, required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, and advertisements. This was the first direct tax—collected from those who used the goods—paid by the people in the colonies, as opposed to the taxes on imported goods, which were paid by merchants. Reaction to the Stamp Act People in every colony reacted with indignation to news of the Stamp Act. A young Virginia lawyer named Patrick Henry spoke for many when he stood up in the House of Burgesses to demand that the king’s government recognize the rights of all citizens—including the right not to be taxed without representation. In Massachusetts, James Otis initiated a call for cooperative action among the colonies to protest the Stamp Act. Representatives from nine colonies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes. The protest against the Stamp Act took a violent turn with the formation of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret society organized for the purpose of intimidating tax agents. Members of this society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials. Economic Pressure Boycotts against British imports were the most effective form of protest. It became fashionable in the colonies in 1765 and 1766 for people not to purchase any article of British origin. For example, instead of buying imported British cloth, colonial women proudly made their own. Faced with a sharp drop in trade, London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the controversial Stamp Act. Declaratory Act In 1766, Grenville was replaced by another prime minister, and Parliament voted to repeal the Stamp Act. When news of the TOPIC 3.3 TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION 93 repeal reached the colonies, people rejoiced. Few colonists at the time noted that Parliament had also enacted a face-saving measure known as the Declaratory Act (1766). This act asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” This declaration of policy would soon lead to renewed conflict between the colonists and the British government. Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767–1773 The British government still needed new revenue. To obtain it, the newly appointed chancellor of the exchequer, Charles Townshend, proposed another tax measure. The Townshend Acts In 1767, Parliament enacted new duties, known as the Townshend Acts, to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The revenue would be used to pay crown officials in the colonies, thus making the officials independent of the colonial assemblies that had paid their salaries. The Townshend Acts also provided for the search of private homes for smuggled goods. All that an official needed to conduct such a search would be a writ of assistance (a general license to search anywhere) rather than a judge’s warrant to search a specific property. A related act suspended New York’s assembly for its defiance of the Quartering Act. At first, most colonists accepted the taxes because they were indirect, meaning they were paid by merchants who then raised their prices to cover the additional costs. They were not direct taxes that consumers paid on their purchases. However, leaders soon protested the new duties. While they accepted Parliament’s right to regulate trade as legitimate, they rejected taxation without representation as a violation of an essential principle of English law. In 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson made these points in Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania. He argued that Parliament could regulate colonial commerce, but if it wanted to tax colonists, it had to have the approval of assemblies that included colonial representatives. In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter and sent copies to every colonial legislature. It urged the colonies to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. British officials in Boston ordered the letter retracted, threatened to dissolve the legislature, and increased the number of British troops. Responding to the circular letter, the colonists again conducted boycotts of British goods. Merchants increased their smuggling to avoid the Townshend duties. Repeal of the Townshend Acts Meanwhile, in London, there was another change in the king’s ministers. Lord Frederick North became the new prime minister. He urged Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts because they damaged trade and generated a disappointingly small amount of revenue. The repeal of the Townshend Acts in 1770 ended the colonial boycott and, except for an incident in Boston (the “massacre” described below), there was a three-year respite from political troubles as the colonies entered into a period 94 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION of economic prosperity. However, Parliament retained a small tax on tea as a symbol of its right to tax the colonies. Boston Massacre Most Bostonians resented the British troops quartered in their city to protect customs officials from attacks by the Sons and Daughters of Liberty. On a snowy day in March 1770, a crowd of colonists harassed the guards near the customs house. The guards fired into the crowd, killing five. Among them was Crispus Attucks, a dockworker of mixed African and American Indian heritage, who would later become a symbol for the antislavery movement. At their trial for murder, the six soldiers were defended by colonial lawyer John Adams. They were acquitted of murder, but two were convicted on the less serious charge of manslaughter. Adams’ radical cousin, Samuel Adams, angrily denounced the shooting incident as a “massacre” and used it to inflame anti-British feeling. Renewal of the Conflict Even during the relatively quiet years of 1770–1772, Samuel Adams and a few other Americans kept alive the view that British officials were undermining colonial liberties. A principal device for spreading this idea was by means of the Committees of Correspondence initiated by Samuel Adams in 1772. In Boston and other Massachusetts towns, Adams began the practice of organizing committees that would regularly exchange letters about suspicious or potentially threatening British activities. The Virginia House of Burgesses took the concept a step further when it organized intercolonial committees in 1773. The Gaspee One incident frequently discussed in the committees’ letters was that of the Gaspee, a British customs ship that had caught several smugglers. In 1772, it ran aground off the shore of Rhode Island. Seizing their opportunity to destroy the hated vessel, a group of colonists disguised as American Indians ordered the British crew ashore and then set fire to the ship. The British ordered a commission to investigate and bring guilty individuals to Britain for trial. Boston Tea Party The colonists continued their refusal to buy British tea because the British insisted on their right to collect tax on it. Hoping to help the British East India Company out of its financial problems, Parliament passed the Tea Act in 1773, which made the price of the company’s tea—even with the tax included—cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea. Many Americans refused to buy the cheaper tea because to do so would, in effect, recognize Parliament’s right to tax the colonies. A shipment of East India Company tea arrived in Boston harbor but found no buyers. Before the royal governor could bring the tea ashore, a group of Bostonians, mostly artisans and laborers, took action. Disguised as American Indians, they boarded the British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor. Colonial reaction to this incident (December 1773) was mixed. While many applauded the Boston Tea Party as a defense of liberty, others thought the destruction of private property too radical. TOPIC 3.3 TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION 95 Intolerable Acts In Great Britain, news of the Boston Tea Party angered King George III, Lord North, and members of Parliament. In retaliation, the British government enacted a series of punitive acts (the Coercive Acts), together with a separate act dealing with French Canada (the Quebec Act). The colonists were outraged by these various laws, which were given the epithet “Intolerable Acts.” The Coercive Acts (1774) There were four Coercive Acts, directed mainly at punishing the people of Boston and Massachusetts and bringing them under control. The Port Act closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until the destroyed tea was paid for. The Massachusetts Government Act reduced the power of the Massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor. The Administration of Justice Act allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Great Britain instead of in the colonies. The Quartering Act was expanded to enable British troops to be quartered in private homes. It applied to all colonies. Quebec Act (1774) When it passed the Coercive Acts, the British government also passed a law organizing the Canadian lands gained from France. To satsify the French-speaking Canadians, the act established Roman Catholicism as the official religion of Quebec. It also set up a government without a representative assembly and extended Quebec’s boundary to the Ohio River. The plan, accepted by French Canadians, was resented in the 13 colonies. The colonists viewed the Quebec Act as a direct attack on the American colonies because it took away lands that New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut claimed along the Ohio River. They also feared that the British would attempt to enact similar laws in America to take away their representative government. Further, the predominantly Protestant Americans resented the recognition given to the Roman Catholic Church. The Demand for Independence Britain’s intensifying crackdown on resistance to its policies forced more and more colonists to take sides. Supporters of the British response included many wealthy merchants in New York and Philadelphia and planters in the southern colonies. Opponents, from Virginia to Massachusetts, challenged the British with harsh criticisms. These words were supported by hostile actions towards the British throughout the colonies, but particularly in Boston and New England. As violence increased, enough people were willing to speak out publicly, participate in mass protests, and donate money that the movement for independence grew stronger. 96 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  THE PROCLAMATION LINE AND THE QUEBEC ACT Spanish claims Proclamation Line British claims 1763 0 400 Miles 0 400 Kilometers H udso n B a y Y EC A N MP HU CO EB DSO N’S BAY QU F N SC OVA O E OT IA C IN PROV ME (MA) NH MA NY Mi RI ssi Y MTS. CT s PA NJ ATLANTIC sip DE GHEN pi OCEAN SP MD AN VA ALLE R ver ISH Ri iv io er h NC LOU O N IA SC ISIAN IN D RV E SE RE GA A WEST FLORIDA FL Gulf of Mexico REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain how the changes in British policies toward the colonies led them to rebellion. KEY TERMS BY THEME Colonial Unrest Committees of Stamp Act (1765) (NAT, POL) Correspondence Declaratory Act (1766) Patrick Henry Intolerable Acts Townshend Acts (1767) Stamp Act Congress Rulers & Policies (WXT) writ of assistance Sons and Daughters of Parliament Tea Act (1773) Liberty George III Coercive Acts (1774) John Dickinson; Letters Whigs —Port Act From... Lord Frederick North —Massachusetts James Otis Government Act Empire (POL, GEO) Samuel Adams —Administration of Justice Sugar Act (1764) Massachusetts Circular Act Letter Quartering Act (1765) Quebec Act (1774) TOPIC 3.3 TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION 97 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt. “The unhappy disputes between Great Britain and her American colonies... have proceeded to lengths so dangerous and alarming as to excite just apprehensions in the minds of His Majesty’s faithful subjects of this colony.... It cannot admit of a doubt but that British subjects in America are entitled to the same rights and privileges as their fellow subjects possess in Britain; and therefore, that the power assumed by the British Parliament to bind America by their statutes in all cases whatsoever is unconstitutional, and the source of these unhappy differences.... To obtain a redress of these grievances, without which the people of America can neither be safe, free, nor happy, they are willing to undergo the great inconvenience that will be derived to them from stopping all imports whatsoever from Great Britain.” Statement by the Virginia Convention, formerly known as the House of Burgesses , 1774 1. Which of the following actions by the colonists is most similar to the one recommended in the excerpt above? (A) The actions taken by the Massachusetts legislature in response to the passing of the Townshend Acts (B) The colonists’ actions in Boston that led to the Boston Massacre (C) The formation of the Committees of Correspondence because it fostered colonial unity against the British (D) The Boston Tea Party because it involved destroying property that was a symbol of British authority 2. The statement that “British subjects in America are entitled to the same rights and privileges as their fellow subjects possess in Britain” indicates that the writers of this document believed that colonists should (A) purchase more goods from British merchants (B) declare independence before the British took any futher actions (C) have representation in setting their own internal economic policies (D) demand that Parliament reduce their overall level of taxes 98 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION 1. “The colonists believed they saw... what appeared to be evidence of nothing less than a deliberate assault launched surreptitiously by plotters against liberty both in England and in America. The danger to America, it was believed, was in fact only the small immediately visible part of the greater whole whose ultimate manifestation would be the destruction of the English constitution with all the rights and privileges embedded in it.... It was this—the overwhelming evidence, as they saw it, that they were faced with conspirators against liberty determined at all costs to gain ends which their words dissembled [portrayed falsely]—that was signaled to the colonists after 1763, and it was this above all else that in the end propelled them into Revolution.” Bernard Bailyn, historian, The Logic of Rebellion, 1967 “The Americans, ‘born the heirs of freedom,’ revolted not to create but to maintain their freedom. American society had developed differently from that of the Old World.... While the speculative philosophers of Europe were laboriously searching their minds in an effort to decide the first principles of liberty, the Americans had come to experience vividly that liberty in their everyday lives.... The Revolution was thus essentially intellectual and declaratory: it ‘explained the business to the world, and served to confirm what nature and society had before produced.’ ‘All was the result of reason....’ The Revolution had taken place not in a succession of eruptions that had crumbled the existing social structure, but in a succession of new thoughts and new ideas that had vindicated that social structure.... The Americans revolted not out of actual suffering but out of reasoned principle.” Gordon S. Wood, historian, The Idea of America, 2011 Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE major difference between Wood’s and Bailyn’s historical interpretations of why the American colonies rebelled against the British. (b) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1754 to 1776 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Bailyn’s interpretation. (c) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1754 to 1776 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Wood’s interpretation. TOPIC 3.3 TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION 99  Topic 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution Government even in its best state is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an intolerable one. Thomas Paine, Common Sense 1776 Learning Objective: Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution. For Americans, especially those who were in positions of leadership, there was a long tradition of loyalty to the king and Great Britain. As the differences between the colonists and the leaders of Great Britain increased, many Americans tried to justify the diverging directions. As discussed in Topic 2.7, the Enlightenment, particularly the writings of John Locke, had a profound influence on the colonies. Enlightenment Ideas The era of the Enlightenment was at its peak in the mid-18th century. These were the very years that future leaders of the American Revolution (Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams) were coming to maturity, and their ideas reflected the influence of Enlightenment thought. Deism Many Enlightenment thinkers in Europe and America were Deists. They believed in God, but in one who had established natural laws in creating the universe and then rarely or never intervened directly in human affairs. God set the rules but then allowed people to make choices. This view of God contrasted with the belief held by most Christians of their time that God regularly intervened in everyday life, often to reward or punish individuals or groups for their actions. Rationalism In general, Enlightenment thinkers trusted human reason to understand the natural world and to respond to the many problems of life and society. While most were Christians, their trust in reason led them to emphasize studying science and human behavior rather than following traditional interpretations of the Bible. 100 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Social Contract In politics, one important Enlightenment idea was the social contract, the concept of an agreement among people to form a government to promote liberty and equality. This idea represented a sharp break from the prevailing assumption that monarchs ruled by divine right—because God had chosen them. Under the social contract, power came from “below,” not from “above.” This philosophy, derived from John Locke and others, had been developed further by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Support for a social contract had a profound influence on educated Americans in the 1760s and 1770s—the decades of revolutionary thought and action that finally culminated in the American Revolution. Thomas Paine’s Argument for Independence In January 1776, one of the most important pieces of writing by an American colonist was published. The author, Thomas Paine, had been born in England before moving to the colonies. His pamphlet, Common Sense, argued in clear and forceful language that the colonies should become independent states and break all political ties with the British monarchy. Paine argued that it was contrary to common sense for a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable. The pamphlet spread rapidly throughout the colonies and ignited public demands for independence. Unlike earlier writers, who focused their anger on Parliament and the ministers, Paine directly attacked King George III and even the ideas of a monarchy. Paine’s success was based largely on his ability to make complicated, abstract ideas understandable for common readers. Common Sense became a key factor in widening the divide between the colonies and Great Britain. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WHY DID THE COLONIES REBEL? Did America’s break with Great Britain in the 18th century signify a true revolution with radical change, or was it simply the culmination of evolutionary changes in American life? Revolution as a Radical Break For many years, the traditional view of the founding of America was that the American Revolution was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and had fundamentally altered society. In the early 20th century, Progressive historians believed that the movement to end British dominance had provided an opportunity to radically change American society. A new nation was formed with a republican government based on a division of powers between a national and state government and an emphasis on equality and the rights of the individual. The revolution was social as well as political. Revolution Before the War During the second half of the 20th century, some historians argued that American society had been more democratic and changed long before the war with Great Britain. The war reflected these changes. Historian Bernard Bailyn has suggested that the changes that are TOPIC 3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 101 viewed as revolutionary—representative government, expansion of the right to vote, and written constitutions—had all developed earlier during the colonial period. According to this perspective, what was significant about the break from Great Britain was the recognition of an American philosophy based on liberty and democracy that would guide the nation. Support an Argument Explain two perspectives on how revolutionary the colonial separation from Britain was. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the new colonial views of the individual and government and the reasons for this in the times leading to the American Revolution. KEY TERMS BY THEME Philosophy (NAT, SOC) social contract Enlightenment John Locke Deism Jean-Jacques Rousseau rationalism Thomas Paine MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “It is inseparably essential to the freedom of a People, and the undoubted Right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own Consent, given personally, or by their representatives.... That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies, to the best of sovereigns... to procure the repeal of the act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, of all clauses of any other acts of Parliament... for the restriction of American commerce.” Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress, 1765 1. The above excerpt was primarily directed to which person or group? (A) Colonial merchants (B) The king (C) Leaders in Parliament (D) Residents of England 102 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  2. The philosophical basis behind the excerpt was that the writers (A) accepted Parliament’s authority generally but not for direct taxation (B) accepted Parliamentary actions only in specific, limited cases (C) rejected only how Parliament was spending tax revenues (D) rejected Parliament’s entire authority as violating the social contract 3. The Enlightenment idea most clearly reflected in this passage was that (A) God rarely intervened in human affairs directly (B) reason was the best guide to understanding the world (C) governments needed popular consent to rule legitimately (D) kings received their authority to rule from God SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. “I wish I knew what mighty things were fabricating. If a form of government is to be established here, what one will be assumed? Will it be left to our assemblies to choose one? And will not many men have many minds? And shall we not run into dissensions among ourselves? I am more and more convinced that man is a dangerous creature; and that power, whether vested in many or a few, is ever grasping.... How shall we be governed so as to retain our liberties? Who shall frame these laws? Who will give them force and energy.... When I consider these things, and the prejudices of people in favor of ancient customs and regulations, I feel anxious for the fate of our monarchy or democracy, or whatever is to take place.” Abigail Adams, Letter to John Adams, November 27, 1775 Using the excerpt, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE specific perspective expressed by Abigail Adams in the excerpt above. (b) Briefly explain ONE historical event or development in the period leading up to independence that led to the view expressed here by Abigail Adams. (c) Briefly explain ONE historical event or development in the period leading up to independence that challenged the views expressed here by Abigail Adams. TOPIC 3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 103  Topic 3.5 The American Revolution What do we mean by the revolution? The war? That was no part of the revolution; it was only an effect and consequence of it. The revolution was in the minds of the people. John Adams, Letter to Thomas Jefferson, August 24, 1815 Learning Objective: Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution. Parliament’s passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 intensified the conflict between the colonies and Great Britain. In the next two years, many Americans reached the conclusion—unthinkable to most colonists only a few years earlier—that the only solution to their quarrel with the British government was to sever all ties with it. How did events from 1774 to 1776 lead to revolution? The First Continental Congress The punitive Intolerable Acts drove all the colonies except Georgia to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia in September 1774. The purpose of the convention—later known as the First Continental Congress—was to respond to what the delegates viewed as Britain’s alarming threats to their liberties. Most Americans had no desire for independence. They simply wanted to protest parliamentary infringements of their rights and restore the relationship with the crown that had existed before the Seven Years’ War. The Delegates Those attending the congress were outwardly similar: all were wealthy White men. But they held diverse views about the crisis, from radical to conservative. Leading the radicals—those demanding the greatest concessions from Britain—were Patrick Henry of Virginia and Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massachusetts. The moderates included George Washington of Virginia and John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. The conservative delegates—those who favored a mild statement of protest—included John Jay of New York and Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. Unrepresented were the Loyalists, the colonists who would not challenge the king’s government in any way. Actions of the Congress The delegates voted on a series of proposed measures, each of which was intended to change British policy without offending moderate and conservative colonists. Joseph Galloway proposed a plan, similar to the Albany Plan of 1754, that would have reordered relations 104 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION with Parliament and formed a union of the colonies within the British Empire. By only one vote, Galloway’s plan failed to pass. Instead, the convention adopted these measures: It endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, a statement originally issued by Massachusetts. The Resolves called for the immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and for colonies to resist them by making military preparations and boycotting British goods. It passed the Declaration and Resolves. Backed by moderate delegates, this petition urged the king to redress (make right) colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. In a conciliatory gesture, it recognized Parliament’s authority to regulate commerce. It created the Continental Association, a network of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves. It declared that if colonial rights were not recognized, delegates would meet again in May 1775. Fighting Begins Angrily dismissing the petition of the First Continental Congress, the king’s government declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and sent additional troops to put down further disorders. The combination of colonial defiance and British determination to suppress it led to violent clashes in Massachusetts—what would be the first battles of the American Revolution. Lexington and Concord On April 18, 1775, General Thomas Gage, the commander of British troops in Boston, sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. Warned of the British march by two riders, Paul Revere and William Dawes, the militia (or Minutemen) of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the British. The Americans were forced to retreat under heavy British fire with eight killed in the brief encounter. Who fired the first shot of this first skirmish of the American Revolution? The evidence is ambiguous, and the answer will probably never be known. Continuing their march, the British entered Concord and destroyed some military supplies. Marching back to Boston, the long column of British soldiers was attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing from behind stone walls. The British suffered 250 casualties—and also humiliation at being so badly mauled by “amateur” fighters. Bunker Hill Two months later, on June 17, 1775, a true battle was fought between opposing armies on the outskirts of Boston. A colonial militia of Massachusetts farmers fortified Breed’s Hill, next to Bunker Hill, for which the ensuing battle was wrongly named. A British force attacked the colonists’ position and managed to take the hill, suffering over a thousand casualties. Americans claimed a victory of sorts, having succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on the attacking British army. TOPIC 3.5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 105 The Second Continental Congress Soon after the fighting broke out in Massachusetts, delegates to the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. The congress was divided. One group of delegates, mainly from New England, thought the colonies should declare their independence. Another group, mainly from the middle colonies, hoped the conflict could be resolved by negotiating a new relationship with Great Britain. The congress adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and called on the colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston to lead the Massachusetts militia and volunteer units from other colonies. Congress also authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire. An American navy and marine corps were organized in the fall of 1775 for the purpose of attacking British ships. Peace Efforts At first the congress adopted a contradictory policy of waging war while at the same time seeking a peaceful settlement. Many in the colonies valued their heritage and Britain’s protection, so they did not want independence. They did, however, want a change in their relationship with Britain. In July 1775, the delegates voted to send an “Olive Branch Petition” to King George III, in which they pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights. King George angrily dismissed the congress’s plea and agreed instead to Parliament’s Prohibitory Act (August 1775), which declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbade all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies. The Declaration of Independence After meeting for more than a year, the congress gradually and somewhat reluctantly began to favor independence rather than reconciliation. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies to be independent. Five delegates, including Thomas Jefferson, formed a committee to write a statement in support of Lee’s resolution. The declaration drafted by Jefferson listed specific grievances against George III’s government and also expressed the basic principles that justified revolution: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” The congress adopted Lee’s resolution calling for independence on July 2. It adopted Jefferson’s work, the Declaration of Independence, on July 4, 1776. 106 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION The Revolutionary War From the first shots fired in Lexington and Concord in 1775 to the final signing of a peace treaty in 1783, the American War for Independence, or Revolutionary War, was a long and bitter struggle. As Americans fought, they also laid the foundations for a new national identity, as the former colonies became a new country, the United States of America. The Competing Sides About 2.6 million people lived in the 13 colonies in 1775. Maybe 40 percent of them actively joined the struggle against Britain. They called themselves American Patriots. Around 25 percent sided with the British as Loyalists. All others remained neutral, with many paying little attention to the struggle. British Strength The British entered the war with far greater resources than the colonists. They had three times the population, a wealthy economy that could finance a war, a large and well-trained army, and the most powerful navy in the world. From previous conflicts with French, they had experience fighting overseas in North America, the West Indies, and South Asia. Patriots The largest number of Patriots were from the New England states and Virginia. Most soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region. They would serve in local militia units for short periods, leave to work their farms, and then return to duty. Thus, even though several hundred thousand people fought on the Patriot side in the war, General Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops under his command at one time. His army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid. However, many colonists had a strong commitment to independence, so they provided a solid core of people resilient enough to undergo hardships. African Americans Initially, George Washington rejected the idea of African Americans serving in the Patriot army. However, when the British promised freedom to enslaved people who joined their side, Washington and the congress quickly made the same offer. Approximately 5,000 African Americans fought as Patriots. Most of them were free citizens from the north, who fought in mixed racial forces, although there were some units composed entirely of African Americans. These troops took part in most of the military actions of the war, and a number, including Peter Salem, were recognized for their bravery. Tories The Revolutionary War was in some respects a civil war in which anti-British Patriots fought pro-British Loyalists. Those who maintained allegiance to the king were also called Tories (after the majority party in Parliament). Almost 60,000 American Tories fought next to British soldiers, supplied them with arms and food, and joined in raiding parties to pillage Patriot homes and farms. The war divided some families. For example, while Benjamin Franklin was a leading Patriot, his son William joined the Tories and served as the last royal governor of New Jersey. TOPIC 3.5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 107  How many American Tories were there? They were often strongest in major port cities, except in Boston. In New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, they were probably in the majority. Toward the end of the war, about 80,000 Loyalists emigrated from the states to settle in Canada or Britain rather than face persecution at the hands of the Patriots. Although Loyalists came from all groups and classes, they tended to be wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots. Most government officials and Anglican clergy in America remained loyal to the crown. American Indians At first, American Indians tried to stay out of the war. Eventually, however, attacks by colonists prompted many American Indians to support the British, who promised to limit colonial settlements in the west. Initial American Losses and Hardships The first three years of the war, 1775 to 1777, went badly for Washington’s poorly trained and equipped revolutionary army. It barely escaped complete disaster in a battle for New York City in 1776, in which Washington’s forces were routed by the British. By the end of 1777, the British occupied both New York and Philadelphia. After losing Philadelphia, Washington’s demoralized troops suffered through the severe winter of 1777–1778 camped at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. Economic troubles added to the Patriots’ bleak prospects. British occupation of American ports resulted in a 95 percent decline in trade between 1775 and 1777. Goods were scarce, and inflation was rampant. The paper money issued by Congress, known as continentals, became almost worthless. Alliance with France The turning point for the American revolutionaries came with a victory at Saratoga in upstate New York in October 1777. British forces under General John Burgoyne had marched from Canada in an effort to join forces marching from the west and south. Their objective was to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies (or states). Burgoyne’s troops were attacked at Saratoga by troops commanded by American generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British were forced to surrender. The diplomatic outcome of the Battle of Saratoga was even more important than the military result. News of the surprising American victory persuaded France to join the war against Britain. France’s king, Louis XVI, an absolute monarch, had no interest in aiding a revolutionary movement. But he did see a chance to weaken his country’s traditional foe, Great Britain, by undermining its colonial empire. France had secretly provided money and supplies to the American revolutionaries as early as 1775. After Saratoga, in 1778, France openly allied itself with the Americans. (A year later, Spain and Holland also entered the war against Britain.) The French alliance proved decisive in the American struggle for independence as it widened the war, forcing the British to divert military resources away from America. 108 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Victory Faced with a larger war, Britain decided to consolidate its forces in America. British troops were pulled out of Philadelphia, and New York became the base of British operations. In a campaign through 1778–1779, the Patriots, led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British forts in the Illinois country to gain control of parts of the vast Ohio territory. In 1780, the British army adopted a southern strategy, concentrating its military campaigns in Virginia and the Carolinas, where Loyalists were especially numerous and active. Yorktown In 1781, the last major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought near Yorktown, Virginia, on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. Strongly supported by French naval and military forces, Washington’s army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis. Treaty of Paris News of Cornwallis’s defeat at Yorktown was a heavy blow to the Tory Party in Parliament that was conducting the war. The war had become unpopular in Britain, partly because it placed a heavy strain on the economy and the government’s finances. Lord North and other Tory ministers resigned and were replaced by Whig leaders who wanted to end the war. In Paris, in 1783, the belligerents finally signed a peace treaty. The Treaty of Paris provided for the following: (1) Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation. (2) The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. (3) Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the factors that resulted in the American success against Britian. KEY TERMS BY THEME Separation (NAT) Declaration of the Causes George Rogers Clark Intolerable Acts and Necessities for Yorktown First Continental Congress Taking Up Arms Final Break (WOR) Patrick Henry Olive Branch Petition Prohibitory Act (1775) Samuel Adams Thomas Jefferson absolute monarch John Adams Declaration of Treaty of Paris (1783) Independence George Washington A New Nation (SOC) John Dickinson War (POL) Loyalists (Tories) John Jay Concord Patriots Joseph Galloway Paul Revere Minutemen Suffolk Resolves William Dawes continentals economic sanctions Lexington Valley Forge Second Continental Bunker Hill Congress (1775) Battle of Saratoga TOPIC 3.5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 109 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–2 refer to the following excerpt. “I have not the least doubt that the Negroes will make very excellent soldiers, with proper management.... I foresee that this project will have to combat much opposition from prejudice and self-interest. The contempt we have been taught to entertain for the black makes us fancy many things that are founded neither in reason nor experience; and an unwillingness to part with property of so valuable a kind will furnish a thousand arguments to show the impracticability or pernicious tendency of a scheme which requires such a sacrifice. But it should be considered that if we do not make use of them in this way, the enemy probably will.... An essential part of the plan is to give them their freedom with their muskets.” Alexander Hamilton, “A Proposal to Arm and Then Free the Negroes,” 1779 1. This excerpt suggests that Hamilton saw the conflict with Great Britain as also a conflict among colonists over (A) whether to trust reason or experience more (B) whether colonists had adequate skills to manage soldiers (C) the views of plantation owners about the enemy (D) the views of White Americans toward enslaved Black Americans 2. The excerpt supports the claim that the use of Black troops during the Revolutionary War was likely motivated by which of the following? (A) Awareness that the French were using Black soldiers in their army (B) Fear that the British would recruit African Americans (C) Concern that state militias were short of troops (D) Belief that the Declaration of Independence called for equality SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE specific strength that Patriots had in the American Revolution in the period 1774 to 1783. (b) Briefly explain ONE specific way that France influenced the American Revolution in the period 1774 to 1783. (c) Briefly explain ONE specific role that Native Americans played in the American Revolution in the period 1774 to 1783. 110 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Topic 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals How is the one exalted, and the other depressed, by the contrary modes of education which are adopted! The one is taught to aspire, and the other is early confined and limited.... The sister must be wholly domesticated, while the brother is led by the hand through all the flowery paths of science. Judith Sargent Murray, “On the Equality of the Sexes” (1779) Learning Objective 1: Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society. Learning Objective 2: Describe the global impact of the American Revolution. Revolutionary ideas impacted American society before, during, and after the war that brought the colonies freedom from British control. These ideas shaped the new state governments that replaced the colonial ones (see Topic 3.7), and they had particular significance for women, enslaved workers, and Native Americans. Women in the Revolutionary Era Both prior to and during the war, groups of women such as the Daughters of Liberty organized to oppose British actions. Before the war, they took direct action by boycotting British goods. During the war, they provided supplies to the fighting forces. Some women followed men into the armed camps and worked as cooks and nurses. In a few instances, women fought in battle, either taking their husband’s place, as Mary McCauley (also known as Molly Pitcher) did at the Battle of Monmouth, or passing as a man and serving as a soldier, as Deborah Sampson did for a year. Similarly, female Loyalists also provided support to colonial and British troops. Economic Role The most important contribution of women during the war was maintaining the colonial economy. While fathers, husbands, and sons were away fighting, women ran family farms and businesses. They provided much of the food and clothing necessary for the war effort. TOPIC 3.6 THE INFLUENCE OF REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS 111  Political Demands The combination of hearing the revolutionary rhetoric and being actively engaged in the struggle influenced how many women viewed their role in society. A new view of their status in society evolved, a change referred to as Republican Motherhood. This new role called for educating women so that in the home they could teach their children the values of the new republic and their roles as citizens. This gave women a more active role in shaping the new nation’s political life. However, it was still a role carried out in the home, not in public, and it did not imply equality with men. Few people, male or female, advocated full equality. Despite their contributions, women continued in their second-class status. Unsuccessful were pleas such as those of Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams: “I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.” The Status of Enslaved African Americans The institution of slavery contradicted the spirit of the Revolution and the idea that “all men are created equal.” For a time, the leaders of the Revolution recognized this and took some corrective steps. The Continental Congress abolished the importation of enslaved people, and most states went along with the prohibition. Several northern states ended slavery, while in the south, some owners voluntarily freed their enslaved laborers. Slavery was in decline. Many leaders, including slave owners such as James Madison, wanted it to end. However, he could not envision a society in which White and free Black people lived together. So, he hoped that freed people would simply return to Africa. However, this changed dramatically with the development of the cotton gin in 1793 (Topic 3.12). By making cotton production more efficient, it quickly increased the demand for low-cost labor. Slave owners came to believe that enslaved labor was essential to their prosperity and that the ideals of the Revolution did not apply to the people they owned. By the 1830s, they developed a rationale for slavery that found religious and political justification for continuing to hold human beings in lifelong bondage. Native Americans and Independence American Indians generally supported the British in the Revolutionary War, so they did not benefit from the success of the colonies’ independence. Further, colonists’ racism and greed for land caused most of them to view American Indians as obstacles to settlement that should be removed. Very few colonists believed that the ideas of liberty and equality applied to American Indians. International Impact of the American Revolution Just as the American Revolution was shaped by ideas imported by the European Enlightenment, so it influenced events elsewhere. The ideas that people have a right to govern themselves, that all people are created equal, and that individuals have inalienable rights have had wide appeal. Leaders of the French 112 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  One of the leaders inspired by the American Revolution was Toussaint L’ouverture of Haiti. He lead the largest successful revolution by enslaved people in history. Source: Engraving (1802). John Carter Brown Library, Wikipedia.org Revolution (1789–1799) that overthrew the monarchy, the United Irishmen who rebelled against British rule (1798), the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) that ended slavery, and numerous Latin American revolutions against European control in the 19th century all cited the Declaration of Independence as inspiration. In the 20th century, the impact of these ideas appeared in countries as diverse as Zimbabwe in central Africa and Vietnam in southeast Asia. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: HOW UNUSUAL WAS THE REVOLUTION? Was the American Revolution similar to or different from other revolutions in history. Historians have provided different answers to this question. Similarities with Other Revolutions In Anatomy of a Revolution (1965), historian Crane Brinton was struck by how alike the America Revolution, the French Revolution (1789–1794), and the Russian Revolution (1917–1922) were. According to Brinton, each one passed through similar stages and became increasingly radical. Other historians have noted similarities between the American Revolution and the colonial rebellions in Africa and Asia after World War II. All were against distant Europe imperial powers. Many featured guerrilla forces (the colonies in the 1770s, Cuba in the 1950s, and Vietnam in the 1960s) and were weaker in the cities but stronger in the surrounding rural territories. Differences with Europe Other historians have focused on the differences between American and European revolutions. For example, the French and Russians reacted to feudalism and aristocratic privilege that did not exist in the American colonies. In their view, Americans did not revolt against outmoded institutions but merely carried to maturity a liberal, republican movement that had been gaining force for years. Impact Historians also disagree on whether the American Revolution shaped later revolutions. Using the insights from comparisons has helped historians better understand the American Revolution in its historical context. Support an Argument: Explain two perspectives on the radical nature of the American Revolution. TOPIC 3.6 THE INFLUENCE OF REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS 113 REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain different ways that the American Revolution affected society and the world. KEY TERMS BY THEME A New Nation (SOC) Deborah Sampson Separation (NAT) Mary McCauley (Molly Republican Motherhood Daughters of Liberty Pitcher) Abigail Adams MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “A Declaration of Rights made by the representatives of the good people of Virginia... Section 1. That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights.... Section 2. That all power is vested in and consequently derived from the people.... Section 4. That no man, or set of men, is entitled to exclusive or separate... privileges from the community.... Section 5. That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judiciary.... Section 6. That elections of members... as representatives of the people, in assembly, ought to be free; and that all men, having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with and attachment to the community, have the right of suffrage.... Section 12. That freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty.... Section 16. All men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion.” Virginia Declaration of Rights, 1776 114 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  1. Which of the following sections was the most direct reason for conflicts between Virginia and the British government? (A) Section 1: all people are by nature equal (B) Section 2: legitimate government power comes from the people (C) Section 4: no person deserves special privileges (D) Section 16: people should be able to worship freely 2. Which of the following sections most clearly reflected a belief in the social contract theory of government? (A) Section 2: origins of governmental power (B) Section 5: separation of government powers (C) Section 6: right to vote (D) Section 12: freedom of the press 3. The group most likely to oppose the ideas expressed in this excerpt would have been (A) the Minutemen of Lexington, because they were from New England (B) the Daughters of Liberty, because they were women (C) Tories such as William Franklin, because they supported the British (D) African Americans, because most of them were enslaved SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. “In the decades following the Revolution, American society was transformed.... The Revolution resembled the breaking of a dam, releasing thousands upon thousands of pent-up pressures.... It was as if the whole traditional structure, enfeebled and brittle to begin with, broke apart, and the people and their energies were set loose in an unprecedented outburst. “Nothing contributed more to this explosion of energy than did the idea of equality. Equality was in fact the most radical and most powerful ideological force let loose in the Revolution. Its appeal was far more potent than any of the revolutionaries realized. Once invoked, the idea of equality could not be stopped, and it tore through American society and culture with awesome power.... Within decades following the Declaration of Independence, the United States became the most egalitarian nation in the history of the world, and it remains so today, regardless of its great disparities of wealth.” Gordon S. Wood, Radicalism of the American Revolution, 1993 TOPIC 3.6 THE INFLUENCE OF REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS 115  “Today, ‘equality’ is generally interpreted to include protection for the rights of minorities; during the Revolution, ‘the body of the people’ referred exclusively to the majority.... It is one of the supreme ironies of the American revolution that the assumption of authority by “the body of the people”—probably its most radical feature—served to oppress as well as to liberate. This was a real revolution: the people did seize power, but they exercised that power at the expense of others—loyalists, pacifists, merchants, Indians, slaves—who, although certainly people, were not perceived to be part of the whole. This was, after all, a war. It would not be the last time Americans sacrificed notions of liberty and equality in the name of the general good. Our Revolutionary heritage works both ways. ‘The body of the people,’ the dominant force during the 1770s, has empowered and deprived.” Ray Raphael, A People’s History of the American Revolution, 2001 Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE major difference between Wood’s and Raphael’s historical interpretations of how radical the American Revolution was. (b) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1774 to 1787 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Wood’s interpretation. (c) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1774 to 1787 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Raphael’s interpretation. 116 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Topic 3.7 The Articles of Confederation The source of the evil is the nature of the government. Henry Knox to George Washington, December 17, 1786 Learning Objective: Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period. Having declared independence, the 13 colonies were faced with the task of fighting for it. To win such a war of independence, the colonists realized that they needed some form of government. The challenge was bringing together 13 distinct colonies united largely by a distrust and fear of a tyrannical British government. This led to an intentionally weak form of central government under a document, the Articles of Confederation, that was written by the Second Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War. Organization of New Governments While the Revolutionary War was being fought, leaders of the 13 colonies worked to change them into independently governed states, each with its own constitution (written plan of government). At the same time, the revolutionary Congress that originally met in Philadelphia tried to define the powers of a new central government for the nation that was coming into being. State Governments By 1777, ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions. Most of these documents were both written and adopted by the states’ legislatures. In a few states (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina), a proposed constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval). Each state constitution was the subject of heated debate between conservatives, who stressed the need for law and order, and liberals, who were most concerned about protecting individual rights and preventing future tyrannies. Although the various constitutions differed on specific points, they had the following features in common: List of Rights Each state constitution began with a “bill” or “declaration” listing basic rights and freedoms. Common provisions identified the right to a jury trial and the freedom of religion. These rights and freedoms belonged to all citizens, and state officials could not infringe (encroach) on them. TOPIC 3.7 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 117  Separation of Powers With a few exceptions, the powers of state government were given to three separate branches: (1) legislative powers to an elected two-house legislature, (2) executive powers to an elected governor, and (3) judicial powers to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny—especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive. Voting The right to vote was extended to all White males who owned some property. The property requirement, usually for a minimal amount of land or money, was based on the assumption that property owners had a larger stake in government than did the poor and property-less. Office-holding Those seeking elected office usually had to meet a higher property qualification than the voters. The Articles of Confederation At Philadelphia in 1776, as Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the United States as a nation. Congress modified Dickinson’s plan to protect the powers of the individual states. The Articles of Confederation, as the document was called, was adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. Ratification Approval of the Articles was delayed by a dispute over state claims to the vast American Indian lands west of the Alleghenies. Some states, such as Rhode Island and Maryland, insisted that states give up these claims and the lands be under the jurisdiction of the new central government. When Virginia and New York finally agreed to cede their claims to western lands, the Articles were ratified in March 1781. Structure of Government The Articles established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) legislature, each state was given one vote, with at least nine votes out of 13 required to pass important laws. There was no separate executive, nor a separate judiciary (court system). Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote. A Committee of States, with one representative from each state, could make minor decisions when the full Congress was not in session. Powers The Articles gave Congress the power to wage war, make treaties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money. However, Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce or to collect taxes. To finance any of its decisions, Congress had to rely upon taxes voted by each state. Neither did the government have executive power to enforce its laws. The United States Under the Articles, 1781–1789 The 13 states intended the central government to be weak—and it was. It consisted of a weak Congress and no executive or judicial branch. 118 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Accomplishments Despite its weaknesses, Congress under the Articles did have some lasting accomplishments: Independence: The U.S. government could claim some credit for the ultimate victory of Washington’s army and for negotiating favorable terms in the treaty of peace with Britain. Land Ordinance of 1785: Congress established a policy for surveying and selling the western lands. The policy set aside one square-mile section of land in each 36 square-mile township for public education. Northwest Ordinance of 1787: For the large territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, Congress passed an ordinance (law) that set the rules for creating new states. The Northwest Ordinance granted limited self-government to the developing territory and prohibited slavery in the region. THE UNITED STATES IN 1783 Lake of the A B R D A C A N Woods I T I S H e S u p e r ior Lak MAINE (MA) La k NH g an eH La k e Mi ch ario uron Ont Mi N A L. MA NEW YORK ssi ssi CT ie RI Er pp L O U I S I A. i L PENNSYLVANIA NORTHWEST NJ TERRITORY er DELAWARE iv R MARYLAND R O h io VIRGINIA UNITED iv er NORTH CAROLINA S H SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES CAROLINA A N I OCEAN GEORGIA S P SPANISH