Unit 2 Reviewer: Western Imperialism and Nationalism in Asia PDF

UNIT 2: WESTERN IMPERIALISM AND NATIONALISM IN ASIA Imperialism: An Introduction Domination of economic, political, and/or cultural life of another political entity Need to exploit resources and subjugate population to achieve domination Old Imperialism New Im...

UNIT 2: WESTERN IMPERIALISM AND NATIONALISM IN ASIA Imperialism: An Introduction Domination of economic, political, and/or cultural life of another political entity Need to exploit resources and subjugate population to achieve domination Old Imperialism New Imperialism Age of Exploration (15 -18 th th Industrial Revolution (19th-20th cent.) cent.) Mercantilism: gold, resource Early capitalism: raw monopolies and extraction, materials, overseas markets, trade in precious metals investments through companies Motives Expand industrial production through stabilizing supply of raw materials, directly controlling markets in colonies, and investing into projects in colonies to strengthen supply chain Conduct humanitarian efforts as the “superior” or “civilized” race as justification for imperialist actions Conduct new or expand existing Christian missions in non-Christian regions to further strengthen European cultural influences Achieve national prestige and unity with the intent of either displaying strength or establishing position in world stage Methods Short-term threats: gunboat diplomacy, military interventions, sparking diplomatic incidents Medium-term manipulations: unequal treaties, establishing puppet governments Long-term changes: investment into profitable industries with foreign control, imposing Western language, religion, education, values and traditions Forms Colonies: direct control by foreign power with foreign law and institutions Protectorates: “responsibility” over security of another state in exchange for it following directives of foreign country Concessions: areas or territory within another state which follows laws and institutions or has industries under the control of foreign country Spheres of influence: area under interests/”influence” of foreign country and therefore must involve them in any discussions or policies involving it 1 India and the British Raj Decline of Mughal India Mughal India at its peak was a centralized state of that ruled a vast multicultural empire in India, with a good economic position However, the Mughal Empire declined due to weak political leadership, social and regional unrest, and therefore weak economic performance, resulting in smaller kingdoms throughout the subcontinent British East India Company (1600-1858) British East India Company enters India in 1600 as a private company with British royal charter with the goal of sending exotic goods back to Britain Methods: alliances with or direct control of regional rulers, divide-and-conquer tactics between smaller kingdoms and/or local leaders, use of military and technological superiority After Battle of Plassey in 1757, BEIC directly controls large amount of territory in the East (Bengal) Areas under BEIC control prioritized growing cash crops in plantations, imposed heavy taxes, politically weaker local rulers, and reforms to local governance; this led to famines like in Bengal (1777) The Indian Rebellion (1857) Sepoys refer to Indians directly hired by the BEIC as soldiers, which initially was a profitable job for locals, but disparity in pay for European soldiers and maltreatment by European commanders became major concerns for Indians With the introduction of the Enfield Rifles in 1856, rumors spread that beef and pork fat were used to cap the gunpowder cartridges and would have to be removed by mouth – in violation of both Hindu and Muslim traditions Rebellion spread quickly across north and central India, even reaching Delhi, but British crushed the rebellion; in response, British Crown absorbs BEIC possessions and establishes the British Raj British Raj (1858-1947) British Crown established British institutions: a central governor (viceroys), the British-dominated legislative council, and the Indian Civil Service Indian economy grew, but was directed to Britain; local industries were destroyed in favor of importing from Britain at higher prices, while cash crop prioritization over staple crops led to famines Infrastructural and educational reforms were also introduced, leading to a new educated middle class that became the backbone of nationalist thought and movements Nationalist movements arose at the end of the 19th cent. in government (Indian National Congress, 1885), among religious groups (Muslim League, 1906), and civil society (Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India movements) In response to this unrest, anti-nationalist policies (Rowlatt Act, 1919), segregation policies (partition of Bengal, 1909) and different violent incidents (Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh [Amritsar], 1919) worsened conditions After long series of local opposition to British rule, British Raj is partitioned in 1947 resulting in the independence into India and Pakistan (East and West); other British possessions formerly in the British Raj (Ceylon, Burma) became independent in 1948 2 China and the Era of Humiliation Decline of Qing China Qing dynasty had origins in Manchus in the north (Manchuria), oversaw expansion of China into Mongolia, Turkestan (Uyghurs), and Tibet; however, Qing government mismanaged poverty, famine, and other crises, and was militarily and institutionally weak, leading to continuous local unrest The Era of Humiliation (1839-1912) British, interested in Chinese tea, could not engage in meaningful trade with China, which wanted silver; they then introduce opium from India, causing an addiction crisis among the population and driving up demand for opium when Qing government reacts by seizing opium imports, British start the First Opium War (1839-1842) over the seized imports; Chinese cities and navy bombarded and overwhelmed by British navy, leading to more British concessions in China in the Treaty of Nanjing (1842) Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) starts from a movement with roots in impoverished communities in the south with the aim of bringing about a "heavenly kingdom" (taiping); internal conflict lead the Qing to push back the rebellion, leading to mass civilian casualties (25 million) After Qing attempt to stop British and French trade, both empires start the Second Opium War (1856-1860), capturing Beijing and Shanghai, burning down the Summer Palace, and establishing more concessions and legalized opium trade in the Treaty of Tianjin (1858) Qing government attempts to introduce new military technology and build more infrastructure in the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895), but proves fruitless after defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the occupation of Formosa (Taiwan), Liaodong peninsula, and Korea by Japan per the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) Pressures over treaty ports and concessions lead to the Open Door Policy (1899) championed by the US, allowing blanket free trade with the West In the midst of dealing with the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) led by wushu practitioners, the Qing government switches to the side of the rebels in a war against foreign powers; Eight-Nation Alliance of said foreign powers intervene and pushed the Boxer Protocol (1901) The Republic of China (1912-1927) Emperor Guangxu attempts massive bureaucratic and socially-oriented reform movement (Hundred Days Reforms, 1898); after lack of support from national elites, Empress Dowager Cixi takes over, initiating a more gradual set of constitution-oriented reforms (Late Qing Reforms, 1901-1911) Reforms by the government were generally unpopular due to perceived slowness and insufficiency of reforms; Sun Yat-sen leads the Kuomintang (KMT) in the Xinhai Revolution (1911-1912), pushing for the three principles of democracy, nationalism, and people's livelihood; opponents included general-turned-warlord Yuan Shikai and other different regional warlords After unifies Republic of China is declared, young Chinese start the New Culture Movement (1915-1921) pushing for science and democracy; after succumbing to Japan's demands in the post-World War I Treaty of Versailles (1919), students splintering from the New Culture Movement launch the May Fourth Movement (1919) Chinese Communist Party was a dominant force by the 1920s, and after uneasy alliance throughout the Republic of China, the KMT purges the communists and leads to the Chinese Civil War (1927-1939) 3 Japan and the Meiji Restoration Decline of Tokugawa Japan (1853-1868) 300 years of Japanese feudalism and shogunate system (bakufu) were majority under the Tokugawa Shogunate (1600-1868), which instituted a long series of political, economic, and social controls over Japan Economy is isolated and weak leading to peasant unrest over heavy rice taxes during low yield seasons, growing factionalism between anti-Tokugawa daimyo and disgruntled samurai, and cultural and technological stagnation from limited interactions with Dutch and Portuguese With arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 and demand to reverse sakoku (isolationism) policy, shogunate signs the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) with the United States; British, French, and Russians also sign similar unequal treaties requiring extraterritoriality for their citizens, concessions in Japanese cities, and lower tariffs for these powers Daimyo frustrated with the shogunate’s response called restore the emperor and push back foreigners (sonnō jōi), culminating in the Boshin War (1868-1869) led by the Satsuma and Choshu domains in the south; royalist forces succeed and elevate young Emperor Meiji as absolute monarch Emperor Meiji’s council of state led by Ito Hirobumi passes a Charter Oath, which calls for a policy of rapid industrialization and Westernization (fukoku kyōhei), beginning a series of trips to the West for inspiration Meiji reforms (1869-1912) Meiji Constitution passed in 1889, establishing a constitutional monarchy and creating a bicameral legislature from the Prussian model – appointive House of Peers and elected House of Representatives, followed by German and French legal codes on the judiciary and merit-based bureaucracy Elementary education made compulsory for all (1872), with a focus on Confucianism-based social relations; at the tertiary level, universities and technical schools with US-based curricula were introduced, as well as government scholarships to study in Western universities Industrialization pushed through state-owned enterprises in transportation, communications, and infrastructure; and zaibatsu (large family-owned conglomerates) to handle other industries Daimyo system (han) and rice tax abolished, with land now governed by the Emperor (prefecture system) and a monetary land tax (1873) established, leading to an abolition of rigid social classes Western culture and practices were adopted: women’s rights to equal political participation and educational access, Western-inspired architecture and clothing, and other cultural activities Reforming traditional Japanese culture, such as establishing State Shinto Successful renegotiation of unequal treaties and signed newer equal ones with Britain and the US Military reforms and territorial expansion Mandatory military service for men (1873) created a large reserve army Adoption of Western military organization and tactics (leadership, education, and technology primarily from the British navy and Prussian army) led to a highly-capable army Japanese military capability proved in battle against China (1894-1895), Russia (1904-1905), and Germany (World War I); all led to expansion of Japan into Hokkaido, the Ryukyu islands, Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula, parts of Shandong, and south Sakhalin 4 Nationalism: A Refresher/Synthesis As a reaction to Western exploitation and undermining of governance and sovereignty, different populations of occupied countries pursued cultural revival and unified mass mobilizations towards reform and self-determination Contributing factors Western imperialism in different forms – colonization, unequal treaties, military interventions and conflicts – led to anti-imperialist sentiment which manifested through sporadic protests and conflicts Economic exploitation, whether in terms of industry or labor/employment, highlighted differences between Westerners and locals, or at worst led to material and economic suffering Military conflicts coming from conquest or suppression were bloody and caused massive resentment and anger against colonial powers Cultural revival and social upheaval pursued as a means of opposition through national identity – which was sometimes violently opposed by colonial powers Educational opportunities for colonized peoples in foreign countries led to intellectual influences of liberal, democratic, and nationalist traditions Political awakening among new middle class (socioeconomic- and education-wise), which became the new leadership for different nationalist social movements Mass mobilization became more prevalent as popular support for national sentiment spread throughout colonized peoples 5