History 348 Notes - Week 1 PDF

RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES HISTORY 348 NOTES: TERM 3 Theme 1- Introductions, "isms", and South Africa's Wars: Brief History of the War: ▪ Mineral revolution = reason Britain wanted to expand ▪ International context = economics → land expropriati...

RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES HISTORY 348 NOTES: TERM 3 Theme 1- Introductions, "isms", and South Africa's Wars: Brief History of the War: ▪ Mineral revolution = reason Britain wanted to expand ▪ International context = economics → land expropriation and new ways of colonisation ▪ Redistribution of colonised areas for purpose behind wars = geopolitics to redraft boundaries ▪ Wars become greater due to arrogance and connections (continuity of international context from 1840s-1940s) ▪ Local context = essentialise local tribes and groups War affects society and society affects war: ▪ Histories of war and society investigate the mutual influences of wars and militaries on the societies in which they are embedded ▪ The military is reflected as a microcosm of the society that created it → going into war want glamourous = waiting game for trench warfare (bad hygiene and no antibiotics = level of distrust in British medicine), boring, PTSD after shooting/ going to war ▪ How does war impact civilian society? - ▪ Economic ▪ Political ▪ Social ▪ Race, class, gender ▪ Redrafting of boundaries = ethnic groups divided by boarders ▪ Assimilation, codification of languages and tribal cultures ▪ Missionaries created local texts = stereotypes ▪ Earlier texts also from Arab traders who went to the Iberian Peninsula = codify tribe/linguistic which helped them maintain power over African tribes 1 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES South Africa’s Wars: South African War World War II 1914–1918 1899–1902 1939–1945 World War I The South African War (1899-1902): ▪ Roots of the war – Encroachment of Boer lifestyle by British Anti-slave movement created tensions = implication for farmers who were struggling in the Cape (didn’t receive the rights they deserved) → led to the Great Trek Frontier wars Republics were created = dealing independently and had no unity (different interests and intentions) → republics weren’t doing great economically but then minerals were discovered British had a missed opportunity = fabricated problems to get involved → more threatened, had no rights in the Transvaal and the Free State, and there was competition for cheap black labour ▪ 2 keys ideas: ▪ “New Imperialism” = wave of colonialism after the treaty of Berlin ▪ Nationalism ▪ Colonial Expansion and the New Imperialism – ▪ "Old Imperialism" 16th - 18th centuries - establishment of trading stations with little European settlement ▪ New Imperialism began during the 1880s-1905 → growth of colonisation (brutal wave) ▪ New figures become prominent/ new central powers 2 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Global zeitgeist ▪ Military force to take control of local governments ▪ Exploiting local economies for raw materials required by Europe’s growing industry ▪ Imposing Western values to benefit the “backwards” colonies ▪ Social Darwinism & “Survival of the Fittest” (Herbert Spencer) ▪ “The White Man’s Burden” = it was believed that the white man had to save the savages of Africa and bring them into the modern era (i.e.: civilisation mission) ▪ The Berlin Conference (1884-85): established the "rules" for conquest of Africa ▪ Follow a set of conventional rules on how warfare would unfold ▪ unconventional warfare became a problem as guerilla warfare increased → Kitchener = scorched earth policy and concentration camps which impacted domestic policy in Britain ▪ By 1914, Europeans controlled 84% of the land. The British Empire controlled 25% of the world’s population and 20% of world territory by 1900 ▪ International areas become central to other wars = institutes a series of people volunteering from other countries ▪ Nationalism: ▪ Feeling of community supported by cultural, ethnological, and sociological uniformity, with a common origin, a common language, and a common religion ▪ Sense of identification with a people, an ideology of common history and destiny, and a social movement addressed to shared objectives ▪ The strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of primary importance. Also, the belief that a people who share a common language, history, and culture should constitute an independent nation, free of foreign domination ▪ Nation state results in a majority and a minority group → latter feel marginalised and like they don’t belong in the nation state = creates tension 3 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES South Africa in the 19th Century – Background for the War: Britain’s South African Colonies: 1. Cape Colony - ▪ Annexed from the Netherlands in 1806 ▪ 1803-1806 = Batavian Colony ▪ NB as Strategic base to protect growing colony in India = CPT was a stopover point ▪ Served as market, source of raw materials (esp. wool), and an outlet for emigration from Britain (1820 Settlers) ▪ The infrastructure of the colony began to change (become more “British”) 2. Natal – ▪ British established a trading post at Port Natal (1824) ▪ After Battle of Blood River (1838), Voortrekkers established Boer Republic at Pietermaritzburg (briefly) ▪ Retief and Dingane agreement = have a certain amount of land but Retief’s men get killed in a kraal → controversial = mandate vs Western ownership ▪ Gardner Agreement ▪ British opposed establishment of any independent state ▪ British annexed Natal in 1843, run as adjunct of Cape. Made Crown Colony in 1856 with a high commissioner The Boer Republics: 3. South African Republic – ▪ Amalgamation of smaller Boer republics ▪ Gained independence during Sand River Convention of 1852 ▪ Annexed by Britain in 1877 as the Crown Colony of the Transvaal ▪ Resumed its independence in 1881 after First Boer War ▪ President: Paul Kruger (1825-1900) 4. Orange Free State – ▪ Annexed by British (Orange River Sovereignty) 1848 ▪ Under Bloemfontein Convention (Feb 1854) became independent Boer Republic 4 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Economy grew rapidly, and by the 1860s the Boers were exporting significant amounts of wool via Cape ports 1. Economic competition 2. Industrialisation 3. Costly = funding of war ▪ President: Martinus Theunis Steyn (1857-1916) Decline of African States: ▪ Many important African leaders died: 1. Soshangane 1858 2. Sekwati of the Pedi 1861 3. Mswati 1865 4. Mzilikazi 1868 5. Moshoeshoe 1870 6. Mpande 1872 ▪ Europeans increasingly determined to exploit Africans as a source of labour and acquire large fertile areas ▪ Colonial troops tipped the balance decisively against societies that had previously withstood attempts to bring them under the settlers’ control ▪ Several major defeats: 1. annexation of Basutoland (1868) 2. Cape-Xhosa war (1877–78) 3. rebellions in Griqualand West, the Transkei, and Basutoland (1878-81) 5 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES 4. British invasions of Zululand and Pediland (1879) 5. collapse of Zulu resistance (1880s) 6. the invasions of the Gaza and Ndebele kingdoms (1893–96) 7. the crushing of Venda resistance (1898) ▪ 1877: Sir Bartle Frere = independent African kingdoms had to be tamed in order to facilitate political and economic integration of the region ▪ 1900: no autonomous African societies remained The Road to War: Direct causes of the war (lecture 2) The Mineral Revolution: ▪ Diamonds (1867, Kimberley, Cape Colony) & Gold (1886, Witwatersrand, ZAR) ▪ GOLD: shifts economic centre of SA out of British hands & Transvaal undergoes rapid economic development ▪ Development of a capitalist mining industry and a sequence of imperialist interventions by Britain = dramatic changes ▪ Urbanisation and migration = influx control, disease, and thriving prostitution (contentious issue as black men with white sex workers = establishment of the immortality act) The “Uitlanders”: ▪ With the establishment of the gold mines came a pattern of labour recruitment, the payment of labour services and accommodation (where these laborers could stay) ▪ Several migrant laborers were brought in to deal with the increased need of workers ▪ Migrant labourers Unskilled black migrants from throughout Southern Africa (i.e.: Malawi) = more numerous ▪ White immigrant miners (“Uitlanders”) = skills, scarcity, and political power (but had no rights to vote), mining elite ▪ Boers = afraid of being overwhelmed and passed laws to restrict the Uitlanders’ influence Concern from British policy makers 6 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Jameson Raid: ▪ 1895: Rhodes, Milner, Chamberlain and others devised scheme to launch a coup d’état in the Transvaal to topple Kruger’s government ▪ The British wanted to destroy any growing party in the South ▪ Uitlander grievances used as pretext to stage an Uitlander rebellion = invasion of Boer to “protect victimised British nationals” ▪ 29 Dec. 1895: Jameson’s forces marched into Transvaal – “three-day dash to Johannesburg” would trigger an uprising by the Uitlanders ▪ Raid was botched = easily overpowered by Boer forces by 2 Jan 1896 → repercussion = start mobilising and created a shared history due to certain alliances ▪ The affair brought Anglo-Boer relations to a dangerously low Military Build-up: 1. Boer Republics ▪ Transvaal Boers united against Britain ▪ Alliance was signed between ZAR & OFS (1897) ▪ Cape Afrikaners alienated against Britain ▪ "Kruger telegram” = congratulated by Kaiser, which showed German support with Afrikaners ▪ Transvaal army transformed; approx. 25,000 men equipped with modern rifles and artillery could mobilise within two weeks ▪ Variety of battles resulted in the large-scale displacement of many people ▪ Altercations resulted in the British trying to take over = therefore resulted in the Mineral Revolution ▪ Infrastructure developed due to mining towns and rapid industrialisation ▪ Economy was growing and lucrative (wool) ▪ Uitlanders = settled in the Transvaal and OFS ▪ Treaty signed between OFS and Transvaal = mobilisation and essentialisation between groups ▪ Not all black populations detested = benefitted from finances and got something out of the colonial policy ▪ Indirect rule by using local chiefs to oppress other more prosperous local people (e.g.: Rhodesia) = divide, conquer and subdue the rest of the population 7 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ NB – Afrikaners and black Africans did not act the same = don’t essentialise!! 2. British Empire – ▪ Failure to gain improved rights for Uitlanders became a pretext for war and a justification for a big military build-up in Cape Colony ▪ Confident that the Boers would be quickly defeated, they planned and organised a short war The War Begins: ▪ Negotiations for truce between OFS, ZAR and British officials, broke down in 1899 ▪ Kruger, after convincing Steyn of OFS to support him, mobilised the Boer Forces ▪ 9 Oct. 1899 – Kruger issues ultimatum to Britain = 48hrs to withdraw all their troops from the border of Transvaal or the Transvaal, allied with the Orange Free State, would declare war ▪ News of the ultimatum reached London on the day it expired. Outrage and laughter were the main responses ▪ War was declared on 11 October 1899 with a Boer offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas Boer vs Brit: 1. British Army – ▪ Imperial force; biggest and best equipped in the world ▪ British able to muster 450 000 by 1902 ▪ Commanders of British Forces during SA War Field Marshal Lord Roberts (Dec 1899-Nov 1900) Kitchener of Khartoum (Nov 1900-1902) ▪ + troops from the commonwealth – Australia, NZ, Canada, and English SA troops (+Boer Joiners) 2. Boer Commandos ▪ 88 000 men fought for Boers ▪ Paul Kruger (Transvaal) & Martinus Theunis Steyn (OFS) ▪ Boer generals included Koos de la Rey, Louis Botha, Christiaan de Wet, Jan Smuts) 8 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ + Foreign volunteers – Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Russia, France, Ireland, Poland, Italy, Hungary…. ▪ NB to remember the participation of black and coloured men ▪ Black men commonly fought for the British = hopes of getting rights after the war due to their aid ▪ Coloured horse riders = connection to people they were working for (Afrikaners) but some were forced to work Three Phases of the War: Phase One – Boer Offensive (Oct-Dec 1899) ▪ 3 major offensives successful: 1. Commandos invaded northern Natal 2. Invaded Cape Colony, lay siege to British garrisons in Kimberley and Mafeking 3. British did achieve some tactical victories at Talana and Elandslaagte ▪ Serious defeats for the British at Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso which became known as 'Black Week' (10th - 15th December 1899) Phase Two – British Response (Jan-Sept 1900) ▪ Brought in reinforcements - British turned the situation around ▪ Relieved the besieged towns of Ladysmith (28 Feb 1900), Kimberley (15 Feb 1900) and Mafeking (18th May 1900) ▪ 13 March 1900: Roberts occupied Bloemfontein (OFS) ▪ 28 May: OFS annexed and renamed the Orange River Colony ▪ 31 May: British troops entered JHB and, on 5 June, Pretoria taken ▪ Transvaal was annexed on 1 September 1900 ▪ Seemed that the war was over ▪ 15 March 1900, Roberts proclaimed an amnesty for all burghers (except leaders) who took an oath of neutrality and went home. 12,000 – 14,000 burghers took this oath of neutrality between March and June 1900 = “hensoppers” (those who gave up) 9 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Phase Three – Guerilla War (Sept 1900 – May 1902) ▪ Purely a white man’s war → didn’t want people of colour to have access to arms and get accustomed to shooting white people ▪ Boers abandoned British style of warfare = increased reliance on small, mobile military units ▪ Enabled them to capture supplies, disrupt communications and undertake raids on the army of occupation = VERY successful in evading capture ▪ Unconventional warfare begins ▪ British response = scorched earth policy to deny supplies to the fighters and to burn down the farms → cutting off Boer farmsteads ▪ 30,000 farms were burnt ▪ March 1901 the need to restrict the movement of the Boers = 8,000 blockhouses and 3,700 miles of wire fencing guarded by 50,000 troops ▪ ‘Drives’ to corner Boers but mainly produced large numbers of displaced Boer and African families ▪ Refugees were sent to concentration camps around South Africa ▪ These measures were largely responsible for bringing the Boers to the negotiation table to end the War Glen Ray Act (1894) ▪ Ensured that black men had to pay taxes → origins of legislation ▪ Shows that apartheid was not the establishment of racial segregation but rather improved and refined them ▪ Laws legitimise what people in power want The End of the War: The Treaty of Vereeniging: ▪ Negotiations between British and Boer leaders began in Pretoria in April 1902. Heated debates from all sides ▪ British = unconditional surrender of Boers ▪ Transvaal = wanted an end to the war as living conditions for the Boer civilians in the Transvaal were becoming desperate with splits developing in the Boer population there ▪ Free Staters = wished to continue the war 10 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ End of May: compromise reached → 31 May 1902 a vote was called: 54 delegates voted yes, 6 voted no to the terms of the treaty ▪ Same day the Boer leaders returned to Kitchener at Melrose House in Pretoria and the peace treaty was signed Aftermath: 1. British – ▪ 22,000 British casualties ▪ British Empire seen as vulnerable ▪ Impacted British domestic politics and foreign policy throughout the 20th century ▪ British populace was fundamentally disturbed ▪ Longest, most expensive (£211 million which is £202 billion at 2014 prices), and bloodiest conflict that the country had taken part in between 1815 and 1914 2. South Africa – ▪ Influx of Chinese labourers creates tension ▪ 1902-1910 = many conferences took place to decide the fate of the South African provinces ▪ Orange Free State and the Transvaal were annexed into the British Empire ▪ Negative economic impact + profoundly negative effect on the demography of the region and quality of life ▪ Small Afrikaner population lost some 14,000 in combat + 28,000, mainly women and children in concentration camps + 14 000 African victims ▪ Left a deep scar on Afrikaner political consciousness, shaped Afrikaner nationalism and gave birth to the modern South African state ▪ Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism? & Divided Population ▪ Growing Segregation & the emergence of black political parties (SANNC) ▪ Union of South Africa came into being 31 May 1910 Milner: ▪ Tasked with reconstructing the country both socially and economically 11 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Reconciliation = fractures between the Afrikaners, British and the local communities → friction amongst communities i.e.: Afrikaner Nationalism ▪ Was not only a white man’s war ▪ Period between 1910 and WW1 = rise of nationalism (Black and Indian) ▪ Questions of what South Africa would look like = federation or union? → who become a part of the political body when provinces were at war with one another ▪ The Free State underwent political deconstruction = Bittereinders ▪ Disparity and dispossession with reconciling and reconstruction → who will receive more funds to rebuild? i.e.: financial compensation to pay people for their losses (3 million pounds) ▪ Afrikaners were at the backend of receiving funds ▪ Disparity gets worse when trying to rebuild industry → opt for cheaper labour ▪ Attempts made to rebel and rise up i.e.: the rise of craft unions (ICU in 1923) = didn’t work ▪ This was due to the flocking of people into the urban areas after the scorched earth policy = drove prices down ▪ Milner brought Chinese labour (1904-1905) → dislocated in China due to the Russia-Japanese War = creates more tension in the labour market ▪ Resentment becomes more prolific and results in the growth of political opposition, which creates splintered groups ▪ By 1912, particular groups start to rise up i.e.: black population (SANC) & APO & INC & South African Party ▪ Each racial political organisation pushes rights for their own racial group → SAP under Botha and Smuts became very prominent ▪ Hertzog’s National Party ▪ Concerted effort that went into education → lack of education = higher unskilled labour ▪ Push to educate white children based on Christian ideologies 12 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Many mechanisms to raise funds for poor Afrikaner people ▪ Land destroyed during the scorched earth policy meant relocating people ▪ During the war, many Africans used the opportunity to move into the Transvaal → who will be relocated and where will there be relocated to? ▪ Class disparity occurred → could have rights if you showed you were a decent person or considered “civilized” = many permutations ▪ Much resistance → squash it? = bringing in more legislation ▪ Native Land Act of 1913 = 8% of the land in South Africa were reserved for the black population → this also determined coloured and Indian land and restricted it to certain areas ▪ Afrikaner majority also dispossessed of land ▪ From 1903 onwards → the rise of newspaper publications i.e.: rise of Afrikaner newspapers in the Transvaal ▪ Growth of “poor white-ism” → can’t share same characteristics with black people (due to economic similarities = very strategic in order to keep white unity ▪ Role of Women: Sexual assault and violence Sex workers took on non-white clients = white purity and morality becomes questioned ▪ International war outbreak in 1914 - South Africa is an infant state but still under Britian = never been involved in an international war before Didn’t support cabinet’s decision to join the war (GSWA were Afrikaner allies) Army was still a new concept World War One (Lecture 3): WW1 video summary: ▪ 18 million people dead = weakened economies 13 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Spanish flu affected already weakened countries ▪ Extension of the war in Europe affected other countries (i.e.: Colonies) ▪ Effects of redrawing country boarders → aggrieved people began to rise up ▪ Constant redrafting affects people’s nationhood and religion → didn’t know where allegiance lay ▪ Created buffer states that would bring countries together Global Origins of a Global War – Growing Tensions in Europe (Long-term factors): ▪ End of Napoleonic Wars (1815); Pax Britannica (1818) = brittle peace ▪ Crimean War (1853-56); Austro-Prussian War (1866); Franco-Prussian War (1870-71); Russo-Turkish War (1878-79); Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) ▪ Disturbed balance of power i.e.: British economic supremacy ▪ Biggest threat = Germany (Anglo-German Arms Race) ▪ Alliances made and broken, and European states became increasingly polarised Balances of Power: Alliances – Central Powers (Triple Alliance) – ▪ Germany ▪ Austria-Hungary ▪ Ottoman Empire ▪ Italy ▪ Bulgaria ▪ Allies (Triple Entente) - ▪ Britain ▪ France ▪ Russia ▪ Later = Italy, US, and Japan The Balkan Powder Keg: ▪ The Ottoman Empire receded from the Balkans leaving a power vacuum ▪ Pan-Slavism (nationalist movement encouraged the Serbs, Bosnians, Slovenes, and Croats to seek a single political entity in Southern Europe) 14 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ First Balkan Crisis (Bosnian Crisis 1908) ▪ The First Balkan War (1912) ▪ The Second Balkan War (1913) ▪ Balkan Wars strained the German alliance with Austria-Hungary, affects multiple other nations diplomatic alliances The spark that lit the fuse: ▪ Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria Hungary (28 June 1914) 28 June 1914 1 Aug. 1914 4 Aug. 1914 Archduke Franz Germany declared war Britain declared war on Ferdinand, Austrian heir on France Germany to the throne, assassinated Germany invaded Austria declared war on Belgium; France declared Serbia war on Germany 28 July 1914 3 Aug. 1914 How WW1 (1914-1918) unfolded: The War of Movement Stalemate August ‒ September 1914 1915 September ‒ November 1914 1916 ‒ 1918 The Race to the Sea The War of Attrition The Western Front: ▪ Trench warfare ▪ Use of mustard gas = environmental issues and bad for health 15 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Movement towards “Modern War” (Middle Ages – 1700s): ▪ Wars of attrition were fought by the princes of early Modern Europe over land ▪ Development of military technology and the growth of imperialism, war grew into international industry ▪ Start of nuclear warfare ▪ Made use of aircrafts and battleships ▪ Germans used zeppelins to get across the English channels ▪ Growth of scale and effectiveness of armed resources leads to widespread adoption of the standing army ▪ Permanence of the standing army led to it becoming more professionalised and bureaucratised = taking on the character of the professional military structure that is known today ▪ Ranking system became more prominent → this changed class dynamics in WW1 = level of flexibility (compare to Downtown Abbey) ▪ Possible to meet people you could relate to form different societal classes and countries = discuss class struggles Total War: ▪ Mass armies were born - armies that demanded “the commitment of the nation’s material and technical resources” → sign an oath and repercussions if left ▪ Civil society was called upon administratively to aid with military mobilisation ▪ All resources expected to lend support to the armed forces: human, financial and cultural elements ▪ Total war required the involvement, not only of a nation’s people, but of all its aspects, including industry ▪ The greatest shift = lines between soldiers and civilians became ever more blurred South Africa and World War One: Whether or not to enter the conflict?: ▪ Outbreak of WWI reopened divisions ▪ Anti-joining: Conservatives and Nationalists (like Hertzog) thought SA should remain neutral; former Boer combatants = distant European war 16 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Pro-joining: English S-Africans; Liberal Afrikaners (Botha & Smuts) matter of national honour; educated middle-class black elite opportunity to demonstrate that “not less worthy than any other sons of the British Empire.” ▪ Can see the division created amongst those who wanted to join the war and those that didn’t The Union joins the War: ▪ 14 September 1914: motion carried to ‘take necessary measures to protect the Union’ & maintain ‘security of the Empire’; passed by margin of 92 votes to 12 ▪ British government requested Botha’s government to invade German South-West Africa (prevent possible German invasion) The Union’s role in WW1: South African Invasion of German South-West Africa Egypt Campaign Palestine Campaign 1914–1915 1916 1918 1916–1918 1916–1918 German East Africa Western Front Campaign Campaign ▪ The Fighting ends = Armistice in November 1918 Paris Peace Conference (Spring 1919): ▪ Dominated by “Big Four”: 1. David Lloyd George (Britain) 2. Georges Clemenceau (France) 3. Woodrow Wilson (U.S.) 4. Vittorio Orlando (Italy) 17 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ None of the defeated nations had any say in shaping Treaty of Versailles (signed 28 June 1919, effective 10 January 1920): Severe penalties for Central Powers ▪ Germany painted as aggressor by “war guilt” clause; had to pay unrealistic reparations; army and navy drastically reduced; Rhineland demilitarised; population and territory of Germany was reduced by about 10% Consequences of the War: ▪ Human cost: 40 MILLION casualties = 21 million wounded, 10 million soldiers killed, 10 million civilians killed ▪ Easter Rebellion in Ireland (1916) ▪ Spanish ‘Flu 1918-1920 (500 million cases; 50 million dead) ▪ 15 million dead in the Russian Revolution ▪ Economic devastation: 12 million tonnes of shipping sunk; 300,000 houses, 6,000 factories, 1,000 miles of railway and 112 coal mines destroyed on Western Front (Zone Rouge in France) ▪ Creation of League of Nations (forerunner to UN) – 10 January 1920 ▪ Women’s Enfranchisement Aftermath in the Union: ▪ 1914 Boer (Maritz) Rebellion – Afrikaner population deeply divided = Afrikaner nationalism grows stronger. ▪ 1924, more conservative National Party, JBM Hertzog gains power ▪ Black South Africans: hopes that “grateful” Britain would use influence to protect remaining rights dashed ▪ Mixed economic impact: - ▪ Negative: trade disrupted, goods shortages, inflation, gold mining & agriculture hit hard ▪ Positive: growth of larger, more diversified and more dynamic secondary industrial sector, increased productive capacity, grew more resilient, stronger than pre-war ▪ Protectionist policies to prevent racial boundaries from being crossed ▪ Sinking of the SS Mendi = not properly commemorated → joining of POC over geographical locations = growing of black nationalism (class-based) 18 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Secondary industrial sector growth = previously reliant on mining and therefore expanded ▪ 1913 Land Act = came with restrictions on share cropping of black people ▪ White people could share crop on black land = Act prevents boundaries from being overstepped ▪ Not just about race but also economics: - ▪ In 1913, black mine workers went on a strike = white Afrikaners were used to fill the gap ▪ Start of the Broederbond in 1918 ▪ In 1920, the ICU was established = first African trade union ▪ Rand revolt in the Witwatersrand in 1922 ▪ The NP came into power in 1924 under Hertzog ▪ In 1925, Afrikaans became an official language ▪ Rise of publications - Die Burger (est. in 1915) → was used by the NP during apartheid 1st publication of The Sunday Times in 1907 ▪ The Great Depression (1929-1932) = factor that influenced the rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe (used the Jews as scapegoats) ▪ Economics = strategizing based to influence a specific demographic and looking after its interests i.e.: white Afrikaners → legislation leads to disenfranchisement of many populations’ groups ▪ Strong relations between Afrikaners and Germany during World War 1 and 2 ▪ But British still has influence in South Africa = Smuts drew SA into the war → tried to uplift the state of the country and tried to make SA an entity so that they could be admitted = resulted in much resistance World War Two (Lecture 4): ▪ Third Reich under Hitler in 1933 → aimed to seize Jews and communists used Blitzkrieg tactics ▪ 1933-1938 = Hitler’s hegemonic Nazi ideology began circulating (Weimar Republic) 19 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES Causes of WW2: 1921: 1922: 1925: 1926: 1928: 1929: 1932: 1933: 21 February: 6 February: 16 October: 24 April: 27 August: The 9 February: 21 January: 30 January: France and Treaty Pact of Locarno Germany and Pact of Paris Protocol Finland and the Adolf Hitler Poland make limiting naval (Treaty of the Soviet (Kellogg-Briand renouncing Soviet Union Mutual Pact) is signed sign a five-year and Nazi a secret armament is Guarantee) is Union sign by the USA, war as an Pact of Non- party military signed by the signed by Treaty of Belgium, instrument of Aggression; becomes agreement, United States, Germany, Berlin. If one Czechoslovakia, national 2 February: In Chancellor of specifying Great Britain, Belgium, Great country is Great Britain, policy is Geneva, a Germany that if France, Italy, Britain, France, attacked, the Germany, Italy, signed by the World Germany and Japan. Italy, Poland, other is to Japan, and Soviet Union, Disarmament and Poland. The Conference attacks either remain Estonia, Czechoslovakia. countries begins; nation, the The nations neutral. condemn Latvia, other will Poland, and 25 July: Poland agree to a Germany is recourse to war, and the Soviet assist in mutual admitted to renouncing it as Romania Union sign a defence. guarantee of full an instrument five-year Non- existing membership of national Aggression Pact; borders, and to policy in make peaceful in the League relations with 29 November: of Nations. France and the settlements of one another. Soviet Union disputes. sign a Pact of Non-Aggression The rise of fascism: ▪ Fascism – an authoritarian and nationalistic right-wing system of government and social organization ▪ Political ideology and mass movement that dominated many parts of Europe between 1919 and 1945 ▪ Extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy and the rule of elites, individual interests would be subordinated to the good of the nation Germany (1918-1933): ▪ 9 November 1918 = Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates ▪ February 1919 = creation of the Weimar Republic ▪ 1920-1923 = years of crisis → New German republic threatened by left and right-wing elements ▪ 1923 = Chancellor fails to make first instalment of the Treaty of Versailles reparations; French troops take over the industrial Ruhr ▪ Hyperinflation = money becomes worthless, prices and wages increase ▪ 28 November 1923 = Munich Putsch ▪ 1929 = German economy seems to recovering BUT October 1929 the Great Depression hits, the Chancellor dies, and Hitler and the Nazi party make political gains ▪ 30 January 1933 = Adolf Hitler is named the Chancellor of Germany 20 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES The Rise of Nazism: ▪ Nazis promised work, freedom, bread (arbeit, freiheit, brot) ▪ Argued that the Weimar Republic was indecisive; country needed a strong leader ▪ Rejected the reparations imposed on them after WWI ▪ Unemployment crisis could be alleviated by increasing the army, manufacturing armaments, increasing public works = would create discipline from the chaos ▪ Hitler promised to unite Germany, eradicate decadent liberal civilization, conquer Russia, eradicate communism, reduce to serfdom the “subhuman” Slavs and rid the continent of Jews ▪ Sent a clear message by withdrawing from the Disarmament Conference and League of Nations in October 1933 ▪ Concentrated all power in the hands of the government, dissolved trade unions, abolished all parties except the Nazi party and open concentration camps for opponents The Conflict Begins: Germany pulled Seized Austria = out of the League Re-militarized the Anschluss of Nations Rhineland Took over Rejected Versailles Formed an alliance Czechoslovakia against Treaty with Italy terms of Munich Agreement 1935 1936–1939 1939 1933 1936 1938 Rearmed with the Sent massive August: Molotov– Anglo-German military aid to Ribbentrop Pact Naval Agreement Franco in the September: Spanish Civil War Invaded Poland Won back the Saar Alliances: The Allies – 21 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES ▪ Great Britain ▪ France (except during the German occupation, 1940–44) ▪ Soviet Union (June 1941) ▪ United States (8 December 1941) ▪ China ▪ ALSO included all the wartime members of the United Nations Axis Powers – ▪ Germany, Italy, and Japan (Tripartite Pact 27 September 1940) ▪ ALSO: Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Croatia, and Finland Global Unfolding of the War: South Africa and World War Two: South Africa joins the war: ▪ 1934: JBM Hertzog (National Party) becomes PM under “Pact govt.” of United Party (coalition with Smuts’ SAP) ▪ Furious debate in Parliament on eve of war: -  NP = Anti-war, anti-Britain, wanted to remain neutral  SAP = Pro-Britain, wanted to support Britain ▪ 4 Sept. 1939: UP deposed Hertzog in favour of Smuts who immediately declared war on Germany 22 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES A “Two-Front War”: ▪ First front = outside, where the battles were fought ▪ Second front = inside, the home front, against the subversive activities and sabotage operations waged by anti-war factions ▪ White Afrikaners ▪ violently opposed to the country’s support of Britain and subsequently waged various anti-war campaigns to maintain putative neutrality ▪ more extreme anti-Britain, pro-Nazi factions = rise of “shirt movements” & Ossewabrandwag ▪ Black South Africans ▪ contradiction between what the war was fought for: the values of democracy and freedom, against the undemocratic doctrines of fascism and Nazism, and on the other hand, the segregation policies which denied those democratic values The Springbok’s Battle: The Fighting Ends: ▪ 8 May 1945: Germany surrenders (Victory in Europe Day) ▪ 15 August 1945: Surrender of Imperial Japan announced; 2 September 1945: instrument of surrender signed (Victory in Japan Day) 23 RM DALLY – 25177893 – TERM 3 NOTES The Aftermath: ▪ Deadliest international conflict in history: 60-80 MILLION dead (50-55 million civilian deaths & 21 to 25 million military deaths) ▪ First use of atomic bombs (dropped on Hiroshima & Nagasaki, 6 & 9 August 1945) ▪ Spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China ▪ Global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers (United States and Soviet Union) – Cold War Aftermath in South Africa: ▪ 340 000 people served in UDF (incl. 192 000 white men, 22 000 white women, 70 000 Black men & 47 000 Coloured & Indian men); 38 208 casualties ▪ WW2 proved to be an economic stimulant for South Africa, although wartime inflation and lagging wages contributed to social protests and strikes after the end of the war ▪ Population again divided: Smut’s political status weakened, growth of “Purified” National Party under DF Malan, 1948 election & birth of apartheid ▪ Parallels between Nazism and fascism and apartheid ▪ Rules applies to anyone who fell under the German Imperial Rule = affected non-Germans as well ▪ Continued persecution of “others” highlights changes in culture = still discriminated against and weren’t compensated for war crimes done towards them ▪ Homosexuality = social disease vs mental defect ▪ Short space of time → Hitler and Nazi’s became very effective through charisma and propaganda = stage when people were vulnerable (due to dented German nationalism) and suggested an alternative (expanded land and territories) = this promoted an extreme ideology (used a scapegoat = Anti- Semitism) ▪ If you didn’t comply, you were killed → highlights how not all Germans were for the Nazi’s but were compelled to obey 24