UNIT 4 HIST 1012 Past Paper PDF

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13TH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH C. Sub-topics - Introduction 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟ Dynasty 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes - The Establishment...

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13TH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH C. Sub-topics - Introduction 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟ Dynasty 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes - The Establishment of a „Royal Prison‟ of Amba Gishen - Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom - Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates - The Rise of Adal - Trade and the Expansion of Islam 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates 4.5. External Relations (Relations with Egypt & Christian Europe)  Introduction  The period from the late 13th to the beginning of the 16th C experienced dynamic political, economic, and socio-cultural developments Some of the events that shaped the course of history in the region during this period were:  the "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty,  succession problems  territorial expansion  evangelization  flourishing and development of trade  expansion of extensive socio−cultural interactions among different peoples who lived in different agro−ecological zones  4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟ Dynasty  The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of Aksum  As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in quotation mark.  The name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.  The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”)  4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes 4.2.1 Succession Problem and the Establishment of a „Royal Prison‟ of Amba Gishen  There was a political instability caused by constant power struggles among sons and grandsons of Yikuno-Amlak (r. 1272-85).  The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba- Tsion‟s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299. (Seyfe Are‟d I, Hizeba-Sagad, Qedema-Sagad, Jan-Sagad & Saba Sagad) The succession problem partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra‟ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen Power Struggle  Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison.  When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the throne. Fig. Amba-Gishen, a  This practice continued until Amba- „royal prison,‟ 1300- Gishen was destroyed by Imam 1540 Ahmad in 1540.  Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom  From 1270 to 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.  Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was around Lake Haiq. It gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, finally to Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.  After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority  In this regard, he quickly subdued Ifat,  Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the territorial limit of the Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.  Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were to control the trade routes and seize territories. The period also witnessed the expansion of trade  Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies In the process, he expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete- Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast.  The provinces of the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa.  Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today‟s NE Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.  Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, It might have cooperatedwith the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray.  In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today‟s Eritrean region.  After controlling the whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire- Negash.( Lord of the sea )  In the SE, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom.  In the south, Gurage areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence of the kingdom.  Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. His trend continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion. The Christian Kingdom during the Reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion Source: Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 133.  4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob I. Evangelization  Christianity had a long history of expansion.  In the 13th c., Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for Christians  The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity  Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13th C) played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, followed by the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.  He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.  The clergy, under Abune Yaqob, spread Christianity to Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.  II. Religious Movements A. The Ewostatewos Movement  The mid-13th C. movement, Abba Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara‟e, and taught until about 1337.  His teachings were the strict observance of Sabbath  He fled to Egypt and faced the same opposition in Cairo  The movement revived when some of his followers returned home from Armenia.  The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.  The King and the Abun opposed the movement and imprisoned some of the Ewostatians; he feared that dispute in the church could divide his kingdom.  The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services; some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites  Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of the 14th c.  He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular authorities.  His movement gained followers in various monastic communities.  Estifanos was initially able to convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church.  He collided with Zara-Yaqob. (1434-68).  Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor‟s religion initiatives, rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and refused to participate in court judiciary procedures.  Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.  Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the Estifanosites and in their reintegration into the EOC. III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob These were some of Zara Yaqob‟s measures:  He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy  He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the church  He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.  He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.  Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem. Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church.  He himself wrote Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me‟lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister, etc.  Some parts of Te‟amre-Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.  4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates  A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the 14th c.  Trade was one of the major factors in the rise and development of those states.  Trade remained a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.  One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and became a center of resistance until the second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal.  The Rise of Adal  The Walasma family, realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target (vulnerable)to the Christian Kingdom due to its location.  They moved further to the southeastern lowlands and established new Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367.  The first center of the Dynasty was called Dakar, a place SE of Harar.  The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7  Trade and the Expansion of Islam  Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam & base of the economy  Strong sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).  The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca  For the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.  Wasel (today Ware-Illu), Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay (southern Tigray) were big market towns that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa.  The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash, and Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa. - Muslim states controlled trade routes passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom.  Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn, p. 39  Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates  The ambition to control Zeila trade route led to rivalry with Sultanate of Ifat.  The first recorded conflict between them took place in 1328.  Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti‟iyintay returning from Cairo.  Amde-Tsion wage a campaign against Haqaddin I and replaced him by his brother Sabradin  Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.  The decline of Ifat also weakened other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani.  These developments forced the Walasma‟s moved their seat to Adal.  In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), he died fighting in 1386.  Sa‟d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) succeed him and gained initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 defeated him.  Sa‟d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413- 30) killed him in 1415 and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings.  Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian kingdom and were successful in killing Tewodros (r. 1412-13) and Yeshaq.  In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.  Successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba‟ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian kdm.  Leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully for some decades.  Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns;  In 1517 he died fighting against Lebne-Dengel's army (r. 1508-40) & succeeded by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. ****Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions between them; 1/ The long distance trade & local markets served as areas of social ties. 2/ Interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia. 3/ The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha (author of religious books)and others and philosophies epitomized by Zara- Ya'iqob  On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.  4.5. External Relations Relations with Egypt  The Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt,  Mohammed ibn Qala‟un persecuted the Copts & destroyed churches in early14th C.  Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned him diversion of the Nile waters.  Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan.  Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt; the patriarch released.  Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt.  The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.  In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a letter to Sultan Barsbay  Three years later, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).  Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53)  Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.  Relations with Christian Europe  During the medieval period, contacts with Europe influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.  This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For e.g.,  Ethiopian attended coronation of Gian Galeazzo Visconti‟s in Milan in 1395.  In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.  Message from Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.  The earliest message to Ethiopia is; letter of King Henry IV of England in 1400 A.D.  The leaders of Rome, and others sent letters to King Dawit asked for support.  King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen of Florentines. - In 1402, Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by Antonio Bartoli.  Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in 1427.  In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo was sent to Europe as Zara- Yaqob‟s ambassador  An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other individuals accompanied him.  The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples.  Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482.  Peter de Covilham arrived at the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.  The continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the 15th C. strengthened the relation with Christian Europe.  Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these relations.  In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia.  Around 1512, Queen Elleni, sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years.