Unit 3 Reading_ Personality and Perspectives (1) PDF

Personality and Perspectives READING # 1 – HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Psychology has deep historical roots, yet it is a relatively new science. Individuals have been examining human thought and behavior for thousands of years, but it is only recently that this investigation has be...

Personality and Perspectives READING # 1 – HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Psychology has deep historical roots, yet it is a relatively new science. Individuals have been examining human thought and behavior for thousands of years, but it is only recently that this investigation has become scientific. Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of human and non-human animals. Behavior is defined as any action that may be observed and measured, and mental processes include memories, cognitions, sensations, perceptions, and emotions. As a science, psychology seeks to use empirical methods to observe, measure, predict, explain, and positively influence behavior. While some psychologists emphasize the biological basis of behavior and mental processes (e.g., nerve cells, genetics, hormones), others examine complex social behaviors, such as aggression, attraction, and prejudice. This reading will outline the contemporary perspectives or approaches. THE ROOTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology has a long past, as humans have always wondered about the mysteries of thought and behavior. Psychologists discuss the following questions: ▪ What is the relationship between the way that we experience the world and how our bodies function? ▪ Why does food lose its flavor when we are sick? ▪ Why do people behave in ways that are destructive to themselves? ▪ How do individuals learn best? ▪ What forces impact memory? CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists have developed multiple theories that are designed to understand the causes of human behavior. These theories are also known as perspectives. These perspectives refer to the framework that psychologists use to explain human behavior, develop research questions, or conceptualize and treat problems for clients. Test Tip: The 7 Contemporary Perspectives Nobody Ever Hates Being Seen in Psychology Class Neurobiological, Evolutionary, Humanism, Behaviorism, Psychodynamic, Sociocultural, Cognitive PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE The psychodynamic perspective is the contemporary version of the psychoanalytic theory that was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The psychodynamic perspective focuses on the unconscious and how early childhood social experiences influence behavior. The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning as being based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality. LEVELS OF AWARENESS or LEVELS OF THE MIND – ICEBERG METAPHOR The psychodynamic perspective proposes that the mind, which includes personality, is structured in three levels: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. These three levels of the mind are often described symbolically as an iceberg because the largest part of the mind, like the largest part of an iceberg, is located below the surface of conscious awareness. The unconscious is the level of the mind that contains hidden thoughts, wishes, memories, and feelings that an individual cannot bring into conscious awareness. Examples of unconscious material could be a forgotten trauma from childhood, hidden hostility toward a parent, or repressed desires. The unconscious is hidden deep inside the individual, similar to the part of the iceberg that is hidden deep below the surface of the water. The preconscious is the level of the mind that contains information an individual is aware of but is not currently thinking about. It is located between the unconscious and conscious. Similar to the part of the iceberg that is just below the surface of the water, the preconscious is hidden for the moment, but it is capable of quickly becoming visible. For example, an individual may not be thinking of what they had for dinner the night before, but if asked, they could easily provide that information from their preconscious. Other examples of preconscious material include your grandmother's name, the capital of Finland, and the argument you had with a teacher last week. Finally, the conscious is the part of the mind that is currently active and responsive to events and stimuli in the environment. Individuals are aware of their internal thoughts, making the conscious mind similar to the part of the iceberg that is visible above the water. For example, at this moment, your conscious is focused on reading this text, but it may also be focused on the fact that you are currently tired and/or hungry. To review, the levels of awareness, or levels of the mind, are sometimes described with an iceberg metaphor. The enormous size of the unconscious is equivalent to the massive amount of the iceberg that is completely hidden under the surface of the water. The preconscious is depicted as the part of the iceberg that is just below the surface of the water. If you look closely, you can see some of the iceberg hidden under the water. The conscious is depicted in the metaphor as the part of the iceberg visible above the surface of the water. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE The behavioral perspective stresses that psychology should only involve the study of actions (behaviors) that could be both observed and measured. Psychology, according to behaviorists, should not study mental processes and consciousness, which was the focus of the dominant perspectives in psychology at that time. Behaviorists fall distinctly on the “nurture” side of the nature vs. nurture debate. This perspective stresses that behavior is influenced by environmental stimuli. Behaviorism was inspired by the work of physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) whose research found that behaviors were learned through association. Pavlov's work led to the discovery of 1 classical conditioning. Pavlov's Nobel Prize-winning research involved the classical conditioning of dogs. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned (trained) to salivate to the sound of a bell if the bell was repeatedly paired with an unlearned stimulus (meat). John B. Watson (1878–1958), the founder of behaviorism, criticized the investigation of consciousness as unobjective and denied the existence of the unconscious mind. His research, including the famous "Little Albert" study, focused on classical conditioning and demonstrated that fears could be learned. In his 1924 book Behaviorism, Watson famously stated, "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select… regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." In this quote Watson shows his devotion to the nurture side of the nature v. nurture debate and why he is considered to be the father of behaviorism. Another major contributor to the field of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) whose work on operant conditioning involved demonstrating how organisms learn voluntary responses. Skinner stressed that reinforcements and punishments influenced future behavior and that free will was an illusion. Skinner's influence on the field of psychology was dramatic and long-lasting. Behaviorism was the dominant perspective from the 1920s until the 1960s and it remains a significant area of study in modern psychology. Skinner demonstrated that behaviors followed by reinforcements (rewards) would be likely to occur again in the future whereas behaviors that were followed by a punishment were not likely to occur again. Behaviorism's emphasis on precise experimentation has been found to have numerous practical applications including behavior modification, or the application of learning theory to the control of human behavior. According to the behavioral perspective, behavior is acquired and maintained learning and by observation. Behaviors that are reinforced will be repeated, and behaviors that are punished will be less likely to occur. Note: modern psychologists frequently combine behavioral and cognitive perspectives. HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE The humanistic perspective arose in the 1950's, with a completely different focus than earlier perspectives. Humanism is sometimes called the third force because it was a reaction against the psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives that were dominant at the time. According to humanistic psychologists, behaviorism concentrates on scientific fact, to the exclusion of human experience, and the psychodynamic perspective concentrates too much on human shortcomings. Humanist psychologists chose to study healthy, creative people rather than mental illness. The humanistic perspective has been most influential in terms of helping individuals to handle adjustment issues and life stressors. The two most influential humanist psychologists were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The humanistic perspective emphasizes the human capacity for goodness, creativity, and free will. The fact that individuals have free will provide them with the ability to control their own destiny. Humanistic personality theories see humans as spiritual, rational, and autonomous beings. They emphasize the innate goodness that is present in all individuals. Although humanists acknowledge that behavior and mental processes are influenced by temperament (nature) and 2 factors in the environment (nurture), they focus on the fact that individuals have free will and make choices about how to respond to situations. Both of the major humanist theorists, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow proposed that individuals are motivated by a self-actualizing tendency. Humanists emphasize the self-actualizing tendency that drives people to reach their fullest potential. However, environmental factors can prevent some individuals from achieving this. According to humanists, like Carl Rogers, children and adults need to be surrounded by others who offer unconditional positive regard and are accepting (supportive), genuine (honest), and empathetic (understanding and compassionate). Unconditional positive regard involves the acceptance and appreciation of an individual, faults and all. This unwavering acceptance allows an individual to develop their sense of innate goodness and reach their full potential. Unconditional positive regard is one of the most influential concepts of the humanistic perspective. It significantly influenced counseling and treatment methods. The humanistic perspective is criticized for the fact that their theory is based on ideas that are difficult to test scientifically. Terms such as the “self-actualizing tendency” are hard to define and measure. Another criticism is that the humanist idea that individuals are innately good and striving for perfection may be too optimistic because the aggressive and selfish aspects of human nature are not being recognized. Despite the criticisms, humanism has expanded the field of personality psychology to focus more on healthy individuals, which in part has led to the development of the positive psychology movement. Positive psychology is the scientific study of human virtues such as wisdom, altruism, justice, and courage. One major area of research among positive psychologists is the study of perceived happiness, or subjective well-being, and the factors including biology, experience, and environment that contribute to higher or lower levels of joy. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Interest in the mind was revived in the 1950s as psychologists realized that behaviorism's neglect of mental processes overlooked an important part of human life. This renewed interest in consciousness is often called the cognitive revolution. In contrast to behaviorists, cognitive psychologists discuss the influence of mental processes in determining how humans perceive, understand, communicate, and behave. The cognitive revolution disagreed with the psychoanalytic school of thought, arguing that it was unscientific. Cognitive psychologists rejected behaviorism because it refused to examine how thoughts impact experience. The cognitive perspective is concerned with the processes of thinking and memory, as well as attention, imagery, creativity, problem-solving, and language. The cognitive revolution was made possible by technological advances that gave psychologists the power to explore realms that were previously considered too subjective by the dominant behaviorists of the time. Cognitive psychologists began to use computers to simulate human memory, language use, and visual perception. Cognitive psychology states that negative behavior or feelings are the result of irrational beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts. Individuals who believe that they have a low level of control regarding what happens to them in life will be more likely to develop mental illnesses, experience stress, and be unhappy. Cognitive therapists use treatment methods based on the idea that thoughts contribute to mental illness. These methods often involve helping patients to identify and alter irrational or faulty beliefs to treat mental illness and reduce stress. 3 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The biological perspective focuses on explaining human behaviors, emotions, and mental processes in terms of having physiological or genetic causes. Biological psychology covers a wide range of study including genetics, the nervous system, and the endocrine system. Research in the area of biological psychology may involve dissecting the brain of a human or animal who suffered a behavior disorder, experimenting with drug treatments for mental illness, measuring brain waves during sleep, or investigating the effects of biological factors on eating, aggression, mental illness, or learning. Increasingly, biological research involves the use of brain imaging to determine areas of the brain that are involved when a person is engaged in a particular behavior or thought. According to the biological perspective, behaviors and mental processes are the result of activity in the brain and nervous system. Problems may be due to chemical imbalances in neurotransmitters and hormones or structural problems in the brain. The biological perspective associates behaviors and mental processes with genetic, physiological, or neurological factors. Test Tip Students often confuse the terms brain and mind, and consequently the cognitive and biological perspectives. Brain refers to a specific organ in the body and is associated mainly with the biological perspective. Mind refers to what the brain does and is mainly associated with the cognitive perspective. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE The evolutionary perspective explains that social behaviors and mental processes are the product of human adaptation to the environment during the course of evolution. The behaviors and traits that are prevalent in our society today are the result of natural selection over evolutionary time. According to Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, traits, and behaviors exist in humans because these attributes allowed our ancestors to adapt, survive, and reproduce. For instance, evolutionary psychology would explain that aggression is common in humans today because, over thousands of generations, those who were genetically predisposed to defend their territories would have been more successful at producing children than those who did not have those traits. Darwin's theories had an enormous impact on the development of psychology and continue to influence the field today. Critics argue that evolutionary theories for human behaviors and mental processes cannot be proven, which makes them inherently unscientific. Despite this fact, most psychologists argue that psychology is inherently related to evolutionary biology but disagree about the amount of influence natural selection has had on behavior and mental processes. Test Tip: it is easy to confuse the biological and evolutionary perspectives because they both involve genetics. The key difference is that the evolutionary perspective explains behavior as being the result of gradual changes over extremely long periods of time, allowing for species level survival. The biological perspective explains that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the inheritance of specific genes (genetic predisposition) from their biological parents. SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE The goal of the sociocultural perspective is to investigate the contribution of diversity and culture to human behavior and mental processes. Sociocultural psychologists examine how cultural surroundings influence thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. They attempt to answer the question of how societies around the world behave differently as a result of cultural characteristics including ethnicity, race, social class, beliefs about gender, religious beliefs, 4 ideology, etc. Research is frequently aimed at developing a greater understanding of cultural differences to combat intolerance and conflict and increase respect and empathy. This perspective emphasizes the impact on behavior of various aspects of individuals' identity and culture such as economic status (SES), ethnicity, age, and gender not previously examined in psychological research. The sociocultural perspective investigates how behaviors vary across cultures and situations. The perspective is also concerned with the way that social norms influence human behavior. A sociocultural psychologist might investigate an individual's tendency to express emotion publicly based on the rules or norms of their culture regarding this behavior. This perspective considers the impact of individualistic versus collectivist cultures on behaviors and mental processes. According to this perspective, behavior and mental processes are influenced by ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and societal norms. Certain mental illnesses and symptoms are present across cultures, whereas others are more culture-specific. For example, the feeding and eating disorder of anorexia nervosa is more prevalent in Western cultures. BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE Modern psychology relies on a variety of theoretical perspectives for explaining human behavior. Each perspective has strengths and weaknesses. Rather than competing with each other, modern psychology utilizes the approach that is most appropriate for explaining a given situation. Sometimes this combination is called the biopsychosocial perspective. "Bio" would include biological and evolutionary perspectives, "psych" would include the humanist, behaviorist, cognitive, and psychodynamic perspectives, and "social" would reference the sociocultural perspective. For example, this perspective might explain aggression as being the result of stresses on the individual (humanistic), learned reactions (behavioral), angry thoughts (cognitive), disturbances in neurochemistry (biological), and group expectations/norms (sociocultural). The term eclectic is used when psychologists describe using a variety of theoretical approaches in the treatment of mental illness such as combining cognitive, behavioral, and biomedical (medications) treatments. END READING #1 5 READING #2 Personality psychologists study the factors that make two individuals have different personalities. PERSONALITY Personality refers to the enduring pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and characteristics an individual possesses and displays consistently that differentiates one person from another. Personality psychologists attempt to identify similar personality characteristics among people and devise general principles that can be used to explain particular motives. Each theorist approaches personality development with somewhat different assumptions, strategies, and objectives. Currently, it remains difficult to test the competing theories for their validity and reliability empirically; some theories are constructed in such a way that they defy testing. However, these theories form a strong basis for establishing hypotheses regarding personality development and possible explanations for personality differences. Personality theorists are concerned with characteristics that all humans share, ones that groups of humans share, and those that describe specific individuals. Additionally, personality studies involve how characteristics develop and the relative influences of genetics, biology, cognition, experience, and culture on personality. Finally, personality theory involves studying how information about characteristics can be utilized to help determine ways to improve human relationships and interactions in various settings, including career, love, family, and across cultures. PERSPECTIVES/APPROACHES – THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Trait Theory Psychodynamic Social Cognitive (Combination of Behavioral and Cognitive) Humanistic Sociocultural For each of the main perspectives (theories) of personality, be prepared to define the theories and the key terms and individuals. In addition, for each perspective, be prepared to explain the strengths and weaknesses of the theory and discuss the methods that the perspective uses to study personality. TRAIT PERSPECTIVE – THEORY OF PERSONALITY Historically, personality has been most commonly described in terms of traits. Traits are patterns of enduring and stable characteristics that influence a person to act consistently, and trait theories of personality look for consistencies in behavior. Trait theories assume that personality characteristics are relatively stable and predictable over time and across situations. Also, these theories assume that individuals will differ concerning how much of a particular personality trait they possess. The Big Five Theory of Personality Paul Costa and Robert McCrae attempted to reduce the lengthy list of potential human personality traits into a few fundamental dimensions of personality. Through the use of factor analysis, a statistical procedure that involves correlating many variables to identify closely related clusters of variables, they discovered the Big Five personality model. The Big 5 is a method of describing the personality of an individual by ranking them on five key dimensions of personality: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Emotional stability. According to this theory, any individual can be adequately described in terms of their personality by measuring them in these five areas. Each of the Big Five traits actually represents one-half of a dichotomous pair. For example, 6 individuals who are high in openness to experience would be creative, curious, imaginative, and prefer change. However, individuals who are low in openness would be the opposite of conventional, down-to-earth, traditional, have a narrow range of interests, and have a preference for the routine. Openness to experience is a Big Five personality trait indicating the level of imagination, creativity, and willingness to experiment with new ideas and experiences that are present in an individual. Conscientiousness is a Big Five personality trait that indicates the level of self-discipline, reliability, attention to detail, dutifulness, and competence in an individual. Those who are high in the trait of conscientiousness would be responsible, dependable, and self-disciplined. High levels of conscientiousness are correlated with diligence and dependability in the classroom and workplace. High levels of conscientiousness are associated with numerous positive outcomes, including higher grades (GPA) in high school and college, career success, and marital happiness. Conscientiousness is also associated with fewer illnesses and lower mortality rates. Those who are low in conscientiousness would be impulsive, careless, and less reliable. Extraversion is a Big Five personality trait demonstrated by individuals who are predominantly oriented towards the outer world of the social realm instead of an inner world of thought. Individuals high in this trait are more animated and social and are likely to be oriented toward the outside world of interactions with others. Those who are high in extraversion are typically outgoing, sociable, and visibly expressive with their emotions. On the other hand, those who are low in extraversion (introversion) are more drawn towards the inner world of subjective experiences. If a person is low in extroversion (thus high in introversion), they are often more reserved, quiet, and deliberate. The trait of introversion seems to have the highest level of heritability of all of the Big Five traits. Agreeableness is a Big Five personality trait indicating the level of trust, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors. Individuals with high levels of the trait of agreeableness are typically described as likable, warm, good-natured, sympathetic, and helpful. High levels of agreeableness are associated with the use of constructive conflict resolution methods, empathy, and helping behaviors. Those who are low in the trait of agreeableness are described as unfriendly, suspicious, uncooperative, ruthless, and cold. Emotional stability describes an individual who is emotionally stable, calm, secure, and not a worrier. The opposite of emotional stability is neuroticism. Neuroticism indicates the level of anxiety, hostility, nervousness, and impulsivity present in an individual. An individual rated low in the trait of emotional stability would be described as emotionally unstable, anxious, worrying, insecure, and prone to psychological distress. Those who are low in emotional stability are more likely to overreact under stress and display impulsiveness. Low levels of emotional stability are correlated with a variety of negative outcomes, including career problems, increased divorce risk, and an elevated risk for mental and physical illnesses. Recent research indicates that one of the Big 5 traits seems to be the most important and can be seen as the one-trait-to-rule-them-all in terms of future success and happiness across the lifespan. The trait or characteristic of conscientiousness relates to being organized, thorough, vigilant, neat, and systematic. Conscientiousness relates to self-discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, organization, achievement motivation, and the ability to exhibit self-control and think before acting. Individuals who are high in the trait of conscientiousness report higher levels of income, greater job satisfaction, and the ability to find and keep a job (the procession of high levels of the trait of neuroticism, on the other hand, has the opposite effect). Individuals with high levels of conscientiousness also experience greater levels of marital satisfaction, fewer health problems, and longer life spans. Young people who are high in conscientiousness have higher grades, are less likely to commit crimes, and are less likely to go to jail. 7  Vocabulary Tip Note: It is not enough to memorize the names of the Big Five traits. You must also explain each trait and describe how individuals fall somewhere on a continuum of high to low for that characteristic. For example, most individuals are in the middle between introversion and extraversion and are called ambiverts. The Big Five personality traits are measured in individuals by using the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), an objective personality test. The Big Five personality theory and test is effective in cross-cultural studies. Test Tip To remember the Big Five personality traits, think of the OCEAN. You must be able to both identify AND define each of the Big Five traits. Note a person is somewhere on a high-to-low-continuum for each of the Big Five. Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability TRAIT PERSONALITY RESEARCH METHODS Traits are usually measured using specialized personality inventories, which are questionnaires that ask people to judge their agreement with statements describing behavior that might indicate some particular trait. These assessments are questionnaires that ask individuals to indicate if specific statements about behaviors, traits, emotions, or thoughts relate to them personally. Agreeing with the statement "I am willing to help people who need it," for example, might indicate the trait of "altruism." Trait theory also uses factor analysis, a group of statistical methods often used in personality testing that involves clustering similar items into groups. Factor analysis was used to create the most commonly used modern trait theory – the Big Five. EVALUATING TRAIT PERSONALITY THEORY While trait theory provides researchers with a framework for describing personality and discovering similarities and differences among individuals, this approach has several criticisms. First, trait theory is ultimately better at describing rather than understanding or explaining people. Trait theorists do not address how traits are related to the thoughts and feelings that precede, accompany, and follow behavior. Trait theory also fails to capture how traits combine to form a complex and dynamic individual. The five-factor theory of personality is the first model to achieve the major goal of trait theory—to describe and organize personality characteristics using the smallest number of traits. There is also research support for the five-factor theory. Psychologist David Buss and his colleagues (1989, 2008) surveyed more than 10,000 men and women from 37 countries. They found a surprising level of agreement in the characteristics that men and women value in a partner (see table). Both sexes generally prefer partners with traits that closely match four traits in the five-factor model—dependability (conscientiousness), emotional stability, pleasing disposition (agreeableness), and sociability (extraversion). 8  Partner Preferences and the Five-Factor Model What Men Most Want in a Partner What Women Most Want in a Partner 1. Mutual attraction—love 1. Mutual attraction—love 2. Dependable character 2. Dependable character 3. Emotional stability and maturity 3. Emotional stability and maturity 4. Pleasing disposition 4. Pleasing disposition 5. Good health 5. Education and intelligence 6. Education and intelligence 6. Sociability 7. Sociability 7. Good health 8. Desire for home and children 8. Desire for home and children 9. Refinement, neatness 9. Ambition and industriousness 10. Good looks 10. Refinement, neatness Source: Based on Buss et al., 1990. Why is there such a high degree of shared preferences for certain personality traits? Scientists suggest that these traits may provide an evolutionary advantage to people who are more conscientious, extraverted, and agreeable—and less neurotic. For instance, people who are conscientious have better health, which is clearly advantageous (Israel et al., 2014). Conscientious individuals may be more likely to follow through on an exercise routine or have their annual dental and physical exams. The evolutionary advantage is also confirmed by cross-cultural studies and comparative studies with dogs, chimpanzees, and other highly social species (e.g., Carlo et al., 2014; Gosling, 2008; Valchev et al., 2014). 9 Along with having strong cross-cultural support, trait theories like the five-factor model allow us to predict real-life preferences and behaviors, such as our political attitudes, beliefs, and voting preferences, and even how much time we spend on social media (Bakker et al., 2016; Barceló, 2017; Hart et al., 2015). People who are extroverted have been found to prefer upbeat, energetic, and rhythmic types of music, such as rap and hip-hop. In contrast, people who are open to experience prefer complex, intense music (Langemeyer et al., 2012). Despite their relative successes, critics argue that trait theories merely describe personality rather than explain it. Moreover, they generally fail to consider how situations can influence a person’s behavior or to offer sufficient explanations for why people develop specific traits (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2011; Cheung et al., 2011; Furguson et al., 2011). Although trait theories have shown personality to be fairly stable, they have failed to identify which characteristics last a lifetime and which are most likely to change (Carlo et al., 2014; Hosie et al., 2014; McCrae, 2011). This debate is often referred to as the person-situation controversy; trait theory comes down heavily in favor of the consistency of personal traits rather than the variability of the situation. Research does show that certain stressful life events, such as being unemployed or experiencing natural disasters, can change our personalities (Boyce et al., 2015; Kandler et al., 2015; Milojev et al., 2014). Moreover, we can sometimes deliberately change our personalities if we have specific goals in mind (Hudson & Fraley, 2015). Would you like to be a more positive person and maybe change some parts of your own personality? END READING #2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ READING #3 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE - THEORY OF PERSONALITY As you remember, in psychodynamic theory, the mind, which includes personality, is structured on three levels: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. These three levels of the mind are often described symbolically as an iceberg because the largest part of the mind, like the largest part of an iceberg, is located below the surface of consciousness. The psychodynamic personality theory suggests that unconscious processes drive personality. Psychodynamic theorists propose a three-part personality consisting of the id, ego, and superego. The id is the most primitive aspect of the personality and the only component present at birth. It operates outside of awareness and resides in the unconscious part of the mind. This part of one's personality is ruled by instinctual urges for food, warmth, sex, and aggression. It works according to the pleasure principle, or the desire for immediate satisfaction and the avoidance of pain. The id does not have any ethical or moral standards and often comes into conflict with reality. The ego, or problem-solving and rational aspect of the personality, develops after about the age of eight months as the id is forced to deal with reality, and the child begins to understand what is and is not possible. Located in both the conscious and preconscious areas of the mind, the ego works according to the reality principle, which balances the impulses of the id with the constraints of reality and the superego's desire for perfection. The third component of the personality, the superego, reminds individuals of what ideal behavior consists of and begins developing during childhood. Serving as a conscience and internal critic, the superego determines what is right and 10 wrong and generates a sense of guilt. The superego enforces the morality principle by promoting adherence to ethical standards and societal norms, shaping our sense of right and wrong. The superego is located in all three levels of the mind: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious, and is often in conflict with the id because fulfilling many of the id's urges would be socially unacceptable. The overall personality of an individual is related to the component of the personality that is the most dominant. A personality dominated by the id will be impulsive, selfish, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking without regard for consequences. Individuals with a personality dominated by the superego are rigidly moralistic, controlling, and repressing desires. A healthy personality involves a strong ego capable of balancing demands from the id and superego. EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS To protect the ego from excessive levels of anxiety, individuals utilize defense mechanisms or unconscious methods utilized by the ego that reduce anxiety caused by unacceptable thoughts or desires by distorting reality. These methods allow individuals to convince themselves that nothing is wrong so that they can avoid coming face to face with conflicts or shameful situations. Defense mechanisms may be healthy if used in moderation. Still, when they are excessive, they result in stress due to a large amount of cognitive energy being wasted on maintaining them. Defense mechanisms are one of the methods used by the ego to negotiate between the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. According to psychodynamic theory, the clashes the ego must manage between the conflicting demands on an individual by their id and superego are called intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts. This process leads to stress and anxiety, and the ego attempts to prevent or reduce these unpleasant feelings in either positive or negative ways that often include defense mechanisms. The defense mechanism of repression involves unconsciously reducing anxiety and protecting the ego by blocking a painful thought from reaching one's awareness. Anxiety-producing unacceptable wishes and thoughts are pushed into the unconscious. For example, repression occurs when the ego prevents the memory of an upsetting event or an anxiety-producing thought from reaching conscious awareness. Test Tip: Repression is the primary defense mechanism and serves as unconscious protection against anxiety-producing thoughts that threaten the ego. As a result, according to Freud, repression underlies many of the other defense mechanisms. Unconsciously reducing anxiety by refusing to accept reality even when presented with evidence is the defense mechanism of denial. Denial means rejecting events that pose a threat to the ego. Drug addicts who refuse to accept that they have a problem even after their substance use has led to physical deterioration, the loss of their job, and damaged relationships are using the defense mechanism of denial. With the defense mechanism of displacement, individuals unconsciously reduce anxiety by expressing aggression toward someone or something less powerful or threatening than the true source of anxiety. For example, a student who is very angry with his teacher but is afraid to say anything because he would get in trouble later that day takes 11 his anger out on his mom by yelling at her because she is a safe target. This allows him to release his anger, which is displacement. Sublimation as a defense mechanism occurs when individuals unconsciously reduce anxiety by directing their aggression toward a more socially acceptable outlet, such as exercise, hard work, sports, or hobbies. Sublimation is seen as a healthier version of displacement. Sublimation occurs when a woman who is very angry at her boss but is afraid to say anything because it might get her fired, directs her feelings of anger and hostility into working in her garden. A person who unconsciously enjoys inflicting pain on others finds an acceptable outlet for this aggression by becoming an orthodontist is also using sublimation. The defense mechanism of projection involves unconsciously reducing anxiety by attributing one's own fears, feelings, faults, or unacceptable thoughts and behaviors to another person or group. Projection occurs when a woman who feels anxious and guilty about her extreme competitiveness accuses all of her coworkers of being extremely competitive. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves unconsciously reducing anxiety by creating logical excuses for unacceptable thoughts and behaviors. A man finds out that he has not been hired for his dream job, he tells everyone he never wanted to go work for that company anyway. His excuse (rationalization) reduces his anxiety and shame. A person who frequently speeds reduces their anxiety and guilt by saying "everyone does it" uses rationalization. In the defense mechanism of reaction formation, individuals unconsciously reduce their anxiety by acting or saying the exact opposite of the morally or socially unacceptable (anxiety-causing) beliefs held by an individual. Reaction formation occurs when a boy who has a crush on a girl who is dating his best friend reduces his anxiety by acting badly toward the girl. The regression defense mechanism occurs when individuals unconsciously reduce their anxiety by reverting to thoughts and behaviors that would have been more appropriate during an earlier period of development. Individuals may behave in a childlike manner to get what they want. For example, an adult woman who is faced with making a decision that is causing anxiety and begins to use baby talk around her friends and family is using the defense mechanism of regression. A stressed-out college student who begins sucking their thumb during a tough exam is also escaping anxiety by retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage and, as such, is using the defense mechanism of regression. Test Tip ∙ To regress means “to go back to an earlier state.” In the defense mechanism of regression, people move to a previous state of development. ∙ Think of projection as being like a movie projector that sends images to another surface. In the defense mechanism of projection, individuals transfer their unacceptable or anxiety-causing thoughts and feelings onto others. ∙ To rationalize means “to explain or justify.” In the defense mechanism of rationalization, we justify our own unacceptable feelings to ourselves. 12 PSYCHODYNAMIC RESEARCH METHODS The psychodynamic perspective investigates differences in personality through case studies and projective tests. Psychoanalytic theory collects evidence for personality assessment by interpreting patient dreams and free associations and using projective personality tests such as the Rorschach Inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which are discussed later in the reading. EVALUATING PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSONALITY THEORY The psychodynamic theory emphasizes the significance of childhood social conflicts and their impact on personality development. According to this perspective, personality evolves throughout the lifespan, a concept further explored in Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, which will be covered in the Development unit. One advantage of the psychodynamic perspective is its focus on how unconscious forces shape an individual's personality. It explores hidden aspects of the mind that influence behavior and emotional responses, providing insight into underlying motivations. However, a significant criticism of the psychodynamic perspective is its lack of empirical evidence. The primary research method, case studies, offers limited generalizability, and the theories are not well-supported by cross-cultural studies. Additionally, many of the hypotheses proposed by psychodynamic theories are challenging to falsify, making it difficult to scientifically validate the assumptions. END READING #3 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ READING #4 Social-Cognitive, Humanistic, and Sociocultural Personality Theory SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE - THEORY OF PERSONALITY The modern theory that combines the behavioral and cognitive perspectives is referred to as the social-cognitive theory. The social-cognitive perspective or theory of personality explains how personal characteristics (traits), social interactions, and cognitive evaluations are involved in developing an individual's personality. It emphasizes the impact of reinforcements, punishments, observational learning, and cognition on creating individual personalities. One very important contribution to this theory is Albert Bandura’s reciprocal determinism. Reciprocal determinism is the theory that the interaction between the individual (personal traits and cognitive variables), the environment, and their behavior influence each other to create one's personality. These three factors influence each other in a constant loop-like fashion to create personality. For instance, if you are interested in tennis (personal/cognitive variable), you will consistently choose to play or watch tennis (behavioral variable), and you will be rewarded by being around people who share your enthusiasm for tennis (environmental variable), further strengthening your interest in tennis. 13  Among the many personal variables that Bandura studied in terms of personality, the one he focused on the most was the concept of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the level of confidence an individual has regarding their ability to perform a particular task or skill. In other words, what does an individual believe they are capable of accomplishing? Individuals with high self-efficacy for a particular task believe that success is possible. They are more likely to continue to pursue goals when setbacks occur and accomplish what they set out to do than those with low self-efficacy. Vocabulary Tip: Efficacy is the ability to produce an intended or desired result. When we understand this, the concept of self-efficacy will be easier to understand. Self-concept refers to the collection of beliefs, perceptions, and evaluations one has about oneself. It includes self-identity, self-image, and various roles. Self-esteem, a crucial component of self-concept, reflects the overall value one places on oneself, influencing confidence and self-worth. High self-esteem leads to a positive self-concept, while low self-esteem can contribute to a negative one. Self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to succeed, also shapes self-concept by enhancing confidence and motivation. Together, self-esteem and self-efficacy create a balanced self-concept, promoting well-being and personal development. EVALUATING THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSONALITY THEORY The social-cognitive theory enlightens researchers on the reciprocal influence between individuals and their circumstances. More than other personality theories, they build from psychological research on learning and cognition. Critics argue that the social-cognitive theory overemphasizes the importance of the situation without considering the extent to which an individual’s personality traits guide their thinking and behavior. HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE - THEORY OF PERSONALITY The humanistic perspective emphasizes the human capacity for goodness, creativity, and free will. Although humanists acknowledge that personality is influenced by temperament (nature) and factors in the environment (nurture), they focus on the fact that individuals have free will and make choices about how to respond to situations. Humanistic theories focus on the self-actualizing tendency (the motive that drives people to reach their greatest potential) and the presence of unconditional positive regard (acceptance and appreciation of individuals, faults, and all) as key forces in personality development. Personality is closely linked to the self-actualizing tendency, an innate drive to realize one's fullest potential and achieve personal growth. Individuals driven by self-actualizing needs are typically self-aware, open to new experiences, and accepting of themselves and others. They pursue goals aligned with their true interests, experience peak moments of joy and creativity, and demonstrate autonomy and independence. These individuals also show empathy and compassion, fostering meaningful relationships. This drive for self-actualization shapes personality by promoting traits such as creativity, purpose, and resilience, leading to higher psychological well-being and life satisfaction. For a healthy personality, children and adults need to be surrounded by others who offer unconditional positive regard, and those who are given conditional positive regard are blocked from healthy personality development. Consider how the concept of unconditional positive regard might apply to a professional relationship between a client and a counselor and how the term could be applied to self-acceptance. Carl Rogers had an enormous influence on psychotherapy, which will be discussed in greater detail in the clinical psychology unit. 14 Humanists believe that the self-concept is at the heart of individual personality. The self-concept refers to all of an individual's unique beliefs and personality characteristics. A person's self-concept might include the belief that they are talented, intelligent, conscientious, and responsible. If a person's self-concept is positive, they will perceive the world positively, moving closer to an ideal version of themselves. If a person's self-concept is negative, they will feel that they fall short of their "ideal self" and will feel dissatisfied and unhappy. Self-esteem suffers when there is a large difference between one's ideal self and self-image. Test Tip As people build a positive self-concept, they need to AGE—acceptance (unconditional positive regard), Genuineness, and Empathy—to reach their full potential. HUMANISTIC PERSONALITY THEORY RESEARCH METHODS Humanists have a unique method for testing personality theory which also relates to humanist therapy. Individuals fill out questionnaires asking them to describe themselves both as who they would ultimately like to be (ideal self) and who they actually are today (self-concept) generating self-reported data. When a person's ideal self and self-concept are alike or congruent, they are typically happy. Humanistic therapy typically involves helping individuals achieve growth by moving their self-concept closer to their ideal self. EVALUATING HUMANISTIC PERSONALITY THEORY The strength of humanistic theories was that they brought a more positive outlook to the study of human personality by suggesting that individuals were basically good and seeking growth and improvement. By increasing focus on the positive and productive qualities of humans, this perspective helped give rise to positive psychology. Humanistic theories are criticized for being based on ideas that are difficult to test scientifically because terms such as self-actualization are hard to define operationally and measure accurately. The theories were not based on empirical data and careful scientific observation. Humanistic theorists use self-report techniques, which can be reliable to measure concepts like self-concept, but are also vulnerable to self-report bias and social desirability bias. Another criticism is that the humanistic idea that individuals are innately good and striving for perfection may be too optimistic because human nature's aggressive and selfish aspects are not being recognized. Despite the criticisms, humanism has expanded the field of personality psychology to focus more on healthy personalities. SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE - THEORY OF PERSONALITY Although evidence indicates that the Big Five personality traits exist across a wide range of cultures providing support for a biological influence, there are also differences in personality among cultures. Cross-cultural research discovered differences regarding self-concept when they asked participants to indicate what they considered to be their most important traits. In individualist cultures, such as those found in the United States and Western Europe, individuals described themselves more often with characteristics like "I am outgoing" or "I am athletic," reflecting self-concepts that emphasize independence and self-reliance. Individuals in collectivist cultures, like those found in Eastern Asia, Western Africa, and parts of South America, described themselves more often in relation to others, such as "I am a daughter" or "I am a student." These descriptions align more closely with self-concepts that emphasize the importance of group membership and harmony over individual achievement. Despite these differences in individualist and collectivist cultures in terms of self-concept, it is important to remember that there is always individual variation within a group. 15  A Comparison Between Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures Sample Individualistic Sample Collectivist Cultural Values Sample Individualistic Sample Collectivistic Cultures Cultural Values Countries United States Korea Independence Interdependence Australia China Individual rights Obligations to others Great Britain India Self-sufficiency Reliance on group Canada Japan Individual achievement Group achievement The Netherlands West African region Independent living Living with extended families Germany Thailand Personal failure leads to Failing the group leads to shame and shame and guilt guilt New Zealand Taiwan Recognizing differences between cultures while also acknowledging the role of individualism or collectivism in the development of personality can increase our understanding of ourselves, our friends, and our families, and it may improve our appreciation of and sensitivity to other cultures. For example, people in the United States generally define sincerity as behavior that accords with our inner feelings. In contrast, people from collectivist cultures tend to see sincerity as behavior that conforms to a person’s role expectations and duties (Yamada, 1997). This explains why collectivistic behaviors might appear insincere to those in the United States. END READING #4 _________________________________________________________________________________________________ READING #5 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT METHODS As a scientific discipline, personality psychology utilizes various methods to evaluate similarities and differences in individuals' characteristics. The psychodynamic perspective investigates differences through the use of case studies and projective testing. Humanistic personality theorists attempted to measure theoretical ideas such as self-concept based on data obtained in therapy sessions often using specialized personality inventories or structured interviews. The social-cognitive theory utilized data from specialized personality inventories and generated some of the most effective data. Similarly, trait theory is based on data that is created through factor analysis and specialized personality inventories. How can personality actually be measured effectively on a test? Personality psychologists from various approaches have attempted to create psychometric measures that are reliable and valid for assessing personality. The wide range of personality tests currently in use fall into two large categories: specialized personality inventories and projective tests. These categories are outlined in the sections below. 16 SPECIALIZED PERSONALITY INVENTORIES Specialized personality inventories are used for various reasons, such as personality research, determining if a particular candidate has personality qualities a company is looking for in an employee, helping individuals find appropriate career paths, and sometimes in the diagnosis of mental illnesses. Specialized personality inventories are questionnaires that ask individuals to indicate whether specific statements about behaviors, symptoms, emotions, or thoughts relate to them personally. The format of these inventories is often true/false or multiple-choice, and they may be administered either individually or in large groups. These assessments are normed on pretested groups. Specialized personality inventories are useful because they are easy to score and can be given easily to large groups of individuals. The forced-choice design allows different people scoring the same test to score them in the same way. However, different people might interpret these scores differently. Specialized personality inventories often contain questions that make it clear what the test is attempting to measure. This can lead to self-report bias or social desirability bias, in which the participant simply gives what they think is the answer that the psychologist is looking for instead of answering honestly. Another issue is wording effects, where participants sometimes do not understand the questions on the test. Test developers address this issue by wording questions very clearly so they have only one meaning and that they are readable to individuals with a wide range of language skills. The advantages of specialized personality inventories are that they provide clear and easy-to-measure data, are easy to score, and are typically inexpensive to administer. Additionally, they are capable of generating a great deal of information and can be used in cross-cultural studies. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) is a widely used specialized personality inventory that measures differences in personality and identifies emotional and behavioral problems. It includes 567 statements categorized into ten psychiatric scales, covering depression, schizophrenia, paranoia, anxiety, and others. Respondents answer true, false, or cannot say. Validity scales check for lying, carelessness, and misunderstanding, such as statements like "I never lie." High scores on validity scales can invalidate the test. Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and personnel psychologists use the MMPI-2 to assess mental health in various settings, including medicine, law enforcement, and the military. The test also includes a lie scale to detect respondents attempting to distort their responses, distinguishing between "faking good" and "faking bad" behaviors. Another commonly used assessment is the NEO Personality Inventory is a specialized personality inventory that measures how individuals rate on each of the Big 5 personality traits (OCEAN). PROJECTIVE TESTS Projective personality tests are used by psychodynamic psychologists to study the preconscious and unconscious mind. In projective personality testing, participants respond to vague or ambiguous stimuli, often by creating stories or interpreting images. The goal is to uncover symbolic expressions of conflicts and impulses. Psychologists using projective tests seek deeper insights into participants' personalities and the unconscious drives that may be influencing their behavior. Unlike structured personality inventories, projective tests are open-ended, presenting a range of stimuli like Draw-A-Person, word-association, and sentence-completion tests. These assessments operate on the projective hypothesis, revealing unconscious aspects of personality through ambiguous stimuli interpretation. Despite their advantages in limiting deception, projective tests are criticized for low reliability, limited validity, cultural bias, and inconsistent scoring. They are also resource-intensive, requiring individual administration by trained psychologists. 17 The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a well-known projective test where participants view a series of inkblots and describe what they see. They can take as much time as needed. After responding, the examiner asks questions about where the item was seen, what aspects of the blot influenced the response (like form, color, shading, and movement), and the content of what was seen. The test requires detailed note-taking and complex analysis by a trained psychologist. The Rorschach copyright expired, making all inkblots and a general interpretation available on Wikipedia. While the test aims to reveal problem-solving approaches, intellectual level, and emotional stability, its validity remains in question, limiting its diagnostic value. Hermann Rorschach - The creator of the inkblot tests → The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), is a projective personality test that uses a series of picture cards where participants create stories, establish settings, predict outcomes, and explore character emotions. This test is valued for measuring achievement and affiliation motivations and facilitating meaningful client-psychologist interactions as well as a tool for understanding personality. An effective mnemonic for the TAT is the phrase "Tell a Tale," highlighting its requirement for participants to narrate stories about ambiguous images. The goal of this test is for participants to reveal unconscious aspects of themselves through their interpretations without realizing it. Figure A: Figure B: Rorschach Inkblot Test This is one of many examples of the “inkblot” test first introduced in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach. Test takers are shown 10 inkblots like the one shown here, one at a time, and are asked to report what figures or objects they see in each of them. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Created by personality researcher Henry Murray in 1938, this test consists of a series of ambiguous black-and-white pictures, like this one, that are shown to the test taker, who is asked to create a story related to each one. Sources Grison, S., & Gazzaniga, M. (2023). Psychology in your life. W. W. NORTON. Fenton, N., & Flitter, J. (2025). AP Psychology Crash Course. Piscataway: REA. Myers, David G., and Nathan DeWall. Myers' Psychology for AP. 4th ed., Worth Publishers, 2024 Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2024). Psychology (2nd ed.). Open Stax. Walker, I. (2010). Research Methods and Statistics. Palgrave Macmillan. 18