Unit 3 QCAA Criteria Notes PDF

**Unit 3 QCAA Criteria Notes** **Topic 1** **Localisation of function in the brain** **Recall the structure of the human nervous system, with reference to the central (i.e. brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (i.e. somatic and autonomic) nervous systems** **\***be able to fill out this diagram...

**Unit 3 QCAA Criteria Notes** **Topic 1** **Localisation of function in the brain** **Recall the structure of the human nervous system, with reference to the central (i.e. brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (i.e. somatic and autonomic) nervous systems** **\***be able to fill out this diagram**\*** - Nervous system is divided into 2 parts (central and peripheral) - Central nervous system contains brain and spinal cord (*centre of body*) - Peripheral nervous system contains all other parts of nervous system **Divisions of peripheral nervous system:** [Somatic nervous system:] Responsible for sensing information about your environment and doing voluntary actions [Automatic nervous system:] Responsible for the regulation of automatic processes [Example: ] If you go for a run, **somatic** nervous system registers wind and will coordinate the movement of your legs while the **automatic** nervous system regulates heartbeat. **Divisions of the automatic nervous system:** **\***they work together in tandem**\*** [Sympathetic nervous system:] It is dominant in situations where your body demands rapid access to energy and resources (e.g. when your stressing or exercising) [Parasympathetic nervous system:] It slows down functioning and resource use **Describe the role of the spinal cord in the human nervous system, with reference to the spinal reflex** - In central nervous system - Spine and spinal cord are not the same thing - The spine is the bony structure that protects the spinal cord and is not part of the nervous system **Role:** The spinal cord carries messages between the peripheral nervous system and the brain. when a message is going **towards** the brain, these are **sensory or afferent messages**; if a message is travelling **from** the brain, it's a **motor or efferent message**. \*to remember\* **[a]**fferent going **[@]**brain, **[e]**fferent **[e]**xit the brain The spinal cord doesn't always wait for the go ahead from the brain -- sometimes it will enact a **spinal reflex**. Since they're initiated by the spinal cord rather than the brain, spinal reflexes are involuntary and automatic. (not all automatic and/or responses are spinal reflexes -- e.g. see automatic nervous system)  1. A harmful stimulus is detected by receptors. 2. Sensory neurons convey this to interneurons in the spinal cord. The spinal cord then coordinates a response to reduce harm from the stimulus (carried by motor neurons to effectors). 3. The spinal cord also sends a message to the brain (since the message is going to the brain it travels on afferent pathways) to alert it about what's happened. This is when the brain might interpret the message as pain and you remove the harmful stimulus. **Recognise that the cerebral cortex can be divided into a number of discrete areas, which have specific functions, including the frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes** - The cerebral cortex is the outer surface of the cerebrum and is composed of 2 hemispheres (left and right) connected by the corpus callosum. - Each hemisphere is responsible for the other half of the body (e.g. left hemisphere controls and receives information from the right side of the body). - Each cerebral hemisphere has distinct areas which are specialised for different functions; although each hemisphere contains the same lobes, there are some areas which are only present in one hemisphere.  **Temporal lobe:** In the lower, central area of each cerebral hemisphere and is important for [auditory perception and memory] - **Primary auditory cortex:** (in each lobe) [receives and processes information from the ears], which allows us to identify different sounds. Different areas in the cortex respond to different types of sound (high-pitched vs. deep) - **Wernicke's area:** located by the front of the temporal lobe and is [only present in the lest hemisphere]. It's crucial for the [comprehension of speech] -- until words have been processed by Wernicke's area, they're meaningless noise. Someone who has damage to Wernicke's area may struggle to speak in a meaningful way -- they're speech may sound fluent but be composed of made-up words that's can't be comprehended. **Frontal lobe:** At the front of the cerebral cortex, the largest lobe, last to fully develop and plays a key role in planning, problem solving, personality, and attention - **Primary motor cortex:** at the back of the frontal lobe. Responsible for [initiating and controlling voluntary movements]. A different area of the primary motor cortex is responsible for each different part of the body, and the size of that area depends on the level of precision that that body part can be moved in. (e.g. the area allocated to your fingers would be larger than the area allocated to your shoulders) - **Prefrontal cortex:** at the very front of frontal lobe, last area of frontal lobe to fully develop. [Works with the amygdala in emotional processing] and is thought to [regulate emotions]. This is important for the prefrontal cortex's key role in allowing and directing goal-driven behaviour. - **Broca's area:** next to primary motor cortex and is [only present in left hemisphere]. Helps coordinate messages to areas required for speech production such as the tongue, jaw and mouth. Since it's responsible for [clearly articulating sounds], if Broca's area is damaged this can result in trouble speaking (may speak in short sentences or fragments). In the upper half of the cerebral cortex and behind the frontal lobe. Its main role is to [receive sensory information]. Remembering that 'soma' means 'body', [somatosensory] refers to information about the position of body parts, muscle movement, and sensory information from the skin. Also has areas involved in attention and the location of the body in space. - **Primary somatosensory cortex:** right next to the primary motor cortex and is about the same shape. just like its motor equivalent, the different areas of the somatosensory cortex are allocated to different areas of the body. The bigger the area, the greater the sensitivity. Note: sensitivity refers to the level or depth of information received; if there is more sensitivity, there is more information. Primary somatosensory cortex [receives and processes information]. - **Geschwind's territory:** located by the edge of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, and [connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas]. Like both of these areas, it is important for language processing. It is not well studied but thought to have a role in integrating different types of information relating to communication (e.g. visual and auditory) as well as being important for language development in childhood. **Occipital lobe:** At the back of the cerebral cortex and is almost entirely devoted to vision. 'occipital' means back of the head, and 'ocular' means relating to the eye - **Primary visual cortex:** at the back of each occipital lobe and [receives information from the eyes]. Everything you can see is in the visual field -- divided into left and right visual fields. The *left* half of each eye receives information about the *right* visual field, which is then sent to the primary visual cortex in the left hemisphere, and vice versa for the left field (e.g. left visual field -\> right half of each eye -\> right hemisphere) **Recall that language processing occurs within Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and Geschwind's territory** **Broca's area:** Helps coordinate messages to areas required for speech production such as the tongue, jaw and mouth. Since it's responsible for [clearly articulating sounds], if Broca's area is damaged this can result in trouble speaking (may speak in short sentences or fragments). **Wernicke's area:** It's crucial for the [comprehension of speech] -- until words have been processed by Wernicke's area, they're meaningless noise. Someone who has damage to Wernicke's area may struggle to speak in a meaningful way -- they're speech may sound fluent but be composed of made-up words that's can't be comprehended. **Geschwind's area:** [Connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas]. Like both of these areas, it is important for language processing. It is not well studied but thought to have a role in integrating different types of information relating to communication (e.g. visual and auditory) as well as being important for language development in childhood. **Recognise that voluntary movement is coordinated from the primary motor cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia** Voluntary movement is coordinated from the primary motor cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia. **Primary motor cortex:** - Responsible for activating neural impulses that initiate voluntary movement of skeletal muscles **Cerebellum:** - Stores sequences of movements that have been previously learnt (implicit/procedural memory) - Coordinates and integrates information about movements from other areas in the brain to help us move in ways that are smooth, well sequenced and seem effortless - Cerebellum communicates with the primary motor cortex by sending signals through a dense nerve bundle that consists of a large number of axons **Basal Ganglia** - Enables voluntary movement by gathering information from various areas of the brain and channelling it to the motor cortex - Acts to block movements that may not suit the end goal - Consists a group of structures that include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globes pallidus, and the subthalamic nucleus - It receives input from the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes **Recognise that emotion occurs within the limbic system, amygdala and prefrontal cortex** **Limbic system:** The limbic system is a set of structures involved in [emotions] and related behaviours, particularly focused on the 4 F's: Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, and... Reproduction. **Amygdala:** Important in [threat detection, fear, and anxiety], and has many neurons that respond to unpleasant stimuli but few that respond to pleasant stimuli **Prefrontal cortex:** [Works with the amygdala in emotional processing] and is thought to [regulate emotions]. This is important for the prefrontal cortex's key role in allowing and directing goal-driven behaviour. **Communicate neurotransmission using a diagram** Neurotransmission is the transfer of information between neurons.  A synapse has 3 components: an axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron. The process of passing the electrochemical signal from one neuron to another, starts with an electrical signal at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron as shown below. 1. An electrical signal is transported along the axon and arrives at the axon terminal 2. The neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal 3. The neurotransmitters diffuse or drift across the synaptic gap 4. The neurotransmitters attach to receptors on the dendrite 5. These receptors signal for ion channels on the dendrite to open 6. Ions flood into the dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron, starting an electrical signal **Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, with reference to glutamate (Glu) and gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)** There are a range of different neurotransmitters -- can be broadly grouped into 2 categories depending on their effect on the postsynaptic neuron. This is because each neurotransmitter has a different chemical shape and thus can attach to different receptors on the dendrite, leading to different effects. **Excitatory neurotransmitters:** increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing (e.g. passing on a signal). The central nervous system's excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate (Glu) which is associated with learning and memory. 2 main Glu receptors are AMPA and NMDA. AMPA prepares the postsynaptic neuron to accept Glu, and then NMDA accepts Glu. As a result, the amount of AMPA receptors on the dendrite increase, meaning that next time Glu is released, there are more receptors available to allow it to be accepted. **Inhibitory neurotransmitters:** reduce the likelihood of the postsynaptic firing. The central nervous system's primary neurotransmitter is gamma aminobutyric acid (GABBA) which counterbalances excitatory neurotransmitters such as Glu and is associated with reduced anxiety symptoms. A page of a book with text Description automatically generated **Compare the physical and psychological function of acetylcholine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin** **Acetylcholine:** this is a common excitatory neurotransmitter. It acts on skeletal muscles (muscles the somatic nervous system controls) and is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system. Additionally, acetylcholine is also used within the central nervous system including in the thalamus and in neural pathways where their deterioration is strongly associated with Alzheimer's disease. **Dopamine:** part of the reward system of the brain and important for pleasurable emotions. Important for coordinating voluntary movement and has roles in sustained attention and problem solving. Decreased levels of dopamine have a key role in Parkinson's disease. **Norepinephrine/noradrenaline:** an excitatory neurotransmitter and hormone involved in control of mood and arousal and can impact sleep. Part of the fight-flight response pathway and plays a role in the encoding of emotionally significant memories. Decreased levels of norepinephrine can cause decreased motivation. It has similar impacts on the body to the more well-known epinephrine, however norepinephrine is more specific in its physical role and acts mostly on blood vessels. **Epinephrine/adrenaline:** works closely with norepinephrine (in fact, its made from it) and is well known for being released in times of stress and its roles in the fight-flight response. Like norepinephrine, it plays a role in the encoding of emotionally significant memories. Additionally, it is used for treatment of anaphylaxis (hence EpiPen). Epinephrine has a wider range of impacts on the body compared to norepinephrine; including contracting blood vessels, increasing heart rate, dilating airways, and increasing the amount of glucose/sugar/energy available to the body by signalling for insulin release and the breakdown of glycogen. It acts on the same receptors of norepinephrine in the CNS, but is more commonly used as a hormone rather than a neurotransmitter compared to norepinephrine. **Serotonin:** less than 2% of serotonin within the central nervous system. In CNS it's mostly found in the midbrain, pons and medulla. It helps regulate sleep, aggression, eating, pain perception, temperature, and blood pressure. Abnormal levels of serotonin are associated with depression, insomnia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Additionally, most serotonin is found in the intestines, and is important in regulating nausea and diarrhoea. **Discuss the impact of interference in neurotransmitter function, with reference to Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease (symptoms and treatments)** **Parkinson's disease:**  The substantia nigra (in the basal ganglia) produces dopamine, so if neurons there deteriorate, dopamine production is impaired. This creates issues with coordinating voluntary movement. This is what occurs in Parkinson's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by insufficient dopamine. Note that dopamine is not the only neurotransmitter involved in Parkinson's disease -- it's just the main one. For example, GABBA is also involved. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Symptoms of Parkinson's | **Treatment** | | Disease** | | +===================================+===================================+ | - Tremors | Administering a **dopamine | | | precursor** (a substance that | | - Muscle rigidity | will be converted to dopamine). | | | The precursor used is an amino | | - Slowness of voluntary | acid called | | movement | [levodopa.] Carbidopa | | | is administered alongside | | - Instability of posture and | levodopa so that it isn't | | balance issues | converted into dopamine before it | | | reaches the brain. | | - Panic attacks | | | | Sometimes additional medications | | - Increased sensitivity to | are used, such as dopamine | | temperature | agonists which 'pretend' to be | | | dopamine by mimicking the effects | | - Memory loss | of dopamine, on neuron receptors. | | | | | - Slowed thinking, planning, | People who have Parkinson's may | | and decision making | also undergo deep brain | | | stimulation. | | - Anosmia (loss of sense of | | | smell) | There is no known cure for | | | Parkinson's. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Alzheimer's Disease** A page of a book Description automatically generated In Alzheimer's disease there are 2 main interferences in neurotransmitter functioning of concern: acetylcholine deficiency and excess of glutamate in synapses. Acetylcholine and glutamate are both important in learning and memory and the hippocampus is important for consolidation of (declarative) memories. Deterioration of the hippocampus and interference in the functioning of these neurotransmitters would result in issues with forming new memories -- one of the key symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Symptoms of Alzheimer's | **Treatment** | | disease** | | +===================================+===================================+ | - Confusion (e.g. about | Cholinesterase inhibitors inhibit | | time/location) | the breakdown of acetylcholine. | | | For moderate to sever | | - Apathy/loss of interest | Alzheimer's, memantine may also | | | be administered. Memantine is an | | - Hallucinations (often worse | antagonist for NMDA receptors, | | at night) | meaning that it reduces the | | | likelihood of glutamate acting on | | - Delusions (often worse at | the receptor. | | night) | | | | | | - Neglect of hygiene | | | | | | - Lack of judgement | | | | | | - Inappropriate behaviour | | | | | | - Sleep disorders | | | | | | - Difficulty swallowing and | | | loss of appetite or weight | | | | | | - Heightened vulnerability to | | | infections | | | | | | - Incontinence | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Topic 2** **Visual Perception** **Explain the process of visual perception, with reference to reception (visible light spectrum); transduction (photoreceptors, receptive fields); transmission (visual cortex); selection (feature detectors); and organisation and interpretation (visual perception principles)** **Reception** **Transduction** **Transmission** **Selection** **Organisation and interpretation** ------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- Light arrives at photoreceptors on the retina (in the eye) Photoreceptors convert light to electrochemical signals These signals are passed along nerves (especially the optic nerve) to the brain The brain selects the important information from the signals The brain arranges the information in a meaningful way Only after interpretation has occurred, has [perception] taken place. When you have, the sensory information has been received, but meaning hasn't been assigned to it (yet) -- this is considered [sensation]. **Reception:** In general, a receptor detects the presence of or change to a stimulus. [Photoreceptors] are receptors that respond to electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation can be divided into different groups based on its wavelength or frequency. The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see is called visible light. [Visible light] is between infrared and ultraviolet light, however other species can often see different parts of the spectrum. This light enters the eye and is received by photoreceptors on the retina. These photoreceptors can be divided into 2 groups; [rods and cones]. Cones allow us to distinguish between different wavelengths/colours, whereas rods can only distinguish light intensity. Humans have 3 types of cones; red, blue and green. **Transduction:** Once light is received by photoreceptors, the photoreceptors need to convert this into an electrical signal. Our receptors can't react to all light everywhere (e.g. can't see light from back of our heads). Each receptor has a [receptive field] which is the area of space in which the receptor can respond to the stimulus. Light not within the receptive field for and of your photoreceptors will not be detected, and thus you won't be able to sense that light. **Transmission:** The neutral impulse/action potential generated during transduction is passed along to the optic nerve, which transmits the information to the primary visual cortex via the thalamus. **Selection:** Feature detection cells respond to specific elements of patterns in the information. For example, these elements can include lines, edges, and movement. This is an important and useful step since visual information can be very noisy (e.g.it has to hold a lot of irrelevant information). **Organisation and interpretation:** The features of the visual information are organised in a meaningful manner and meaning is assigned to them, allowing us to understand what this information represents about the external environment. This is aided by the use of visual perception principles. **Determine biological influences on visual perception, including physiological make-up, ageing and genetics** **Biological Make-up:** Someone's biological/physiological make-up impacts how they see. For example, if someone has an abnormally shaped lens, light might not focus on the retina properly, and therefore glasses may be used so that light focuses on the retina. **Aging:** Aging is associated with poorer visual perception, and one reason for this is that the lens becomes less flexible with ages, reducing its ability to be shaped by the ciliary muscles on an object. Additionally, there are a range of other changes such as the lens becoming more opaque (less transparent) and in the fluids inside the eye. **Genetics:** Genetics also impacts visual perception, for example red-green colour blindness follows an X-recessive pattern of inheritance. **Explain psychological influences on visual perception including: ­** - **perceptual set (past experience, context, motivation and emotional state) ­** - **visual perception principles (Gestalt, depth cues, and visual constancies)** **Perceptual set** Our perception is influenced by our perceptual set, which can be defined as a state of readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way. We think about this through 4 different contributors to perceptual set: past experience, context, motivation, and emotional state). For example, if you see a tray in the oven with chopped white vegetables. Your [past experience] means your more likely to see these as potatoes rather than turnips or another white vegetable. If you're hungry then your [emotional state] makes it more likely you'll judge them as finished cooking earlier. On the other hand, if you told your sibling they'd be ready later, your [motivation] to be right will reduce the likelihood you perceived the vegetables as finished cooking. All of it occurring in an oven was important information about the context that made you more likely to interpret the items as vegetables. The impact of perceptual set has been demonstrated experimentally with ambiguous figures (images that can be interpreted in multiple ways). **Visual constancies** Even though objects themselves may stay the same, the image they cast on the retina may change. **Bright constancy** Recognising when the brightness of an object has not changed despite the amount of light reflected onto the retina changing ---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Shape constancy** Interpreting an object as having constant shape when the shape itself has not changed, despite changes in the shape of the image cast onto the retina **Size constancy** Interpreting a shape as having constant size when the size itself has not changed, despite changes in the size of the image cast onto the retina **Evaluate the impact of social influences on visual perception, with reference to cultural skills (Hudson 1960; Deregowski 1972; Deregowski, Muldrow & Muldrow 1972)** **Hudson 1960:** [Interpreting drawings and perspective is a cultural skill]. Hudson 1960 research showed images with pictorial depth dues. The most well-known one depicts a hunter with a spear, an elephant, and an antelope. Participants were asked whether the antelope or elephant was closer. Adults and children from a rural community in South Africa often indicated that the elephant was closer due to not considering pictorial depth cues in their answer and instead focusing on how close on the page each animal was. Overall, Hudson concluded that 3D interpretation of images was a cultural skill.  **Deregowski 1972:** Deregowski showed that participants from various cultures struggled to interpret perspective drawings and instead preferred split view ones. Deregowski also argued that his split-style drawings are universal in children. Additionally, other images and methods of testing were used such as asking participants to duplicate an image and seeing if they made a 2D or 3D model of it. The results reinforced Hudson's findings that [pictorial depth perception has cultural variability]. AS Psychology holah.co.uk **Deregowski, Muldrow & Muldrow 1972:** This research focused on remote villages in Ethiopia and involved showing images and asking participants what they saw. From the ability of participants to identify images of animals concluded that [perception was mostly based on the persons familiarity with the object, animal, or person depicted in the image.]  **Analyse the fallibility of visual perception, with reference to the Müller-Lyer, Ames room, and Ponzo visual illusions, as well as ambiguous and impossible figures** \*Fallibility -- tendency to make mistakes or be wrong\* **Müller-Lyer:** The Müller-Lyer visual illusion is very well studies but there's still some ambiguity (multiple interpretations) about what causes it. In it, 2 lines that are the same length appear to be different lengths based on the lines added at the end of each side of the line The Illusions Index - The Illusions Index **Ames room:** In Ames room, size consistency fails due to insufficient information being available for depth perception, and the viewer is manipulated into incorrectly interpreting size. In Ames room there's a viewer who looks through a peephole into the room. Their friends or family walk into the room and on one side of the room the people in it appear to shrink, whereas on the other side they appear to grow. This can then create the effect where short people in the room appear to be the same height or taller than tall people in the room. Or if the short people went to the 'shrinking' side, the differences in their heights would be manipulated. The side of the room that people appear to 'shrink' is further away -- the room is a trapezium. Additionally, because the roof is sloped, the person is shorter in comparison to the height of the wall. This works particularly well because the walls don't appear to be sloped to the viewer. The peephole into the room only allows one eye to be used, meaning there are only monocular depth cues.  Ames room - 3D scene - Mozaik Digital Education and Learning **Ponzo visual illusions:** Ponzo visual illusions use the pictorial depth cue of linear perspective to trick us into thinking the length of 2 lines is different when they actually have the same length. This is one example of how the way we automatically 'upscale' a more distant object for size constancy can be manipulated to produce a visual illusion.  **Ambiguous figures:** Ambiguous figures are designed to have multiple distinct and approximately equal likely possibilities for how the image can be interpreted. They're particularly useful for examining perceptual set, as you can predispose/prime participants to see one interpretation and analyse changes in the frequency with which each interpretation occurs. e.g. if you talked about birds, ponds, and parks, someone might see this as a duck, however if you talk about mammals, easter, and pets, someone might interpret it as a rabbit. 3\. Ambiguous figures - The Eye Beguiled - Impossible world **Impossible figures:** Impossible figures are images which pictorial depth cues to create the perception of an object which is inconsistent or impossible to construct. These types of figures create confusion in people who are accustomed to interpreting pictorial depth cues, but not people from cultures where this is not the case.  **Topic 3** **Memory** **Recognise the duration and capacity of sensory memory (including iconic and echoic), and short-term and long-term memory** Of everything in our environment, we sense a limited amount, which is briefly held in sensory memory. Of what we sense, we pay attention to a limited amount, which goes into our short-term memory. From our short-term memory, we can consolidate information into long-term memory. **Types of memory:** **Evaluate two models of memory, including ­** - **the working model of memory (Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch 1974), including the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer** - **the levels of processing (LOP) model of memory, including the role of encoding in long-term memory** **Working model of memory:**  The working model of memory addresses flaws in the Atkinson-Shiffrin multistore of memory (the sensory -\> short-term -\> long-term model). It proposes that short-term memory is dynamic and consists of different components which actively work together. Although the working model of memory proposes refinements to the Atkinson-Shiffrin, it's not without its weak points. For example, it's very difficult to empirically test the working model. [Central executive] The most important component of the working model of memory is the central executive. The central executive has limited ability to store information and supervisors the other systems, which are sometimes known as the 'slave' systems. One of these systems is the phonological loop. [Phonological loop] This system processes and stores auditory information. This includes the articulatory control system (inner voice) and phonological store (inner ear). When you recall the sounds of your favourite song or know what someone said a second ago, this is your phonological loop at work. [Visuospatial sketchpad] Another of these systems is the visuospatial sketchpad. This system is responsible fore visual and spatial information. If you close your eyes your are likely to still remember what colour the room is and recall the position of some objects within it -- this can be attributed to the visuospatial sketchpad. [Episodic buffer] The episodic buffer is a relatively late addition to the working model of memory, and prepares memories for storage in episodic long-term memory. Episodic memory contains your memories of the events, or episodes of your life, so the episodic buffer combines information from different systems and long-term memory to create these 'episodes'. E.g. the episodic buffer may combine information about what your friend said (phonological loop)m their expression as they said it (visuospatial sketchpad), and a previous conversation you had (from long-term memory). **Levels of processing (LOP) model of memory:** The levels of processing model proposes that memory is retained on the basis of how deeply it is processed. Another way of thinking about it is that it suggests that the other 2 models we have looked at aren't quite right and focus too much in subdividing memory into different storage categories. In the levels of processing model, there aren't distinct stores and the focus is on [how deeply a memory is processed]. In this context, depth refers to the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus. [The more deeply information is processed, the longer a memory trace is predicted to last]. As shown above, depth of processing is divided into 2 broad categories; shallow processing and deep processing. The levels of processing model itself does not consider memory stores, but there is evidence for memory stores existing and it can be integrated with the previous models of memory by using the levels of processing model to consider how likely it is for information to be encoded into long-term memory from working memory. [Shallow processing] - can then be divided into structural processing (encoding physical qualities and/or appearance of a stimulus), and phonemic processing (encoding the sounds of a stimulus) - shallow processing involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information to help us hold it in our active attention or working memory) - considered to lead to relatively short-term retention [Deep processing ] - involves semantic processing in which there is elaborative rehearsal (information is linked/associated/integrated with the stimulus) and is considered to lead to stronger term retention **Explain how information is stored in long-term memory with reference to implicit (procedural) and explicit (episodic and semantic) memory** Long-term memory can be divided into explicit and implicit memories.  [Explicit]: - able to be consciously recalled and are also known as declarative memories - this includes episodic and semantic memories - [episodic memories] provide us with information about the events of our lives, such as what you ate for dinner last night, the cringe thing you did in primary school that keeps you up at night, and what you did over the summer holidays - [semantic memories] are explicit memories that are not episodic. For example, information about what a primary school is, how many centimetres are in a metre, and who the prime minister of Australia is, are all retained in semantic memory [Implicit: ] - not able to be consciously recalled - the only type of implicit memory needed to know for QCE is procedural memories - [procedural memories] contain your memories of how to conduct certain procedures (e.g. how to ride a bike, how to run, how to walk) **Describe the role of the hippocampus in memory formation and storage** **The hippocampus in memory formation:** - forms explicit memory - helps provide meaning to new information by providing context to it - plays a role in the encoding and temporary storage of declarative memories - after context has been applied, these memories are then transferred to long term storage in other regions of the cortex - the hippocampus also has the ability to produce new cells, allowing for learning and greater memory formation (particularly important during declarative (semantic) memory formation such as child learning new words **The hippocampus in memory storage/consolidation:** - consolidation is the process by which the brain takes a new memory, then encodes and transfers it to permanent long term storage - the hippocampus plays a role in the consolidation process - this has been shown via neuroimaging techniques as well as by experimental procedures on rats where the hippocampus had been disabled or impacted in some way and memory subsequently tested - the hippocampus is responsible in both the consolidation (moving info from STM to LTM) of new declarative memories and their retrieval - damage to hippocampus can disrupt memory formation and retrieval **Consider the role of the cerebellum in forming and storing implicit (procedural) memories** **The cerebellum:** - plays a role in the formation of procedural memories, specifically motor skills - works closely with a number of the structures in the frontal lobes to encode and process information - involved in both the formation and retrieval of procedural memories - allows for the automation of many motor activities by activating the relevant neural pathways required for the task - encoding, processing and storing procedural memories - classically conditioned responses (a form of implicit memory) - memory for motor-skills tasks **Distinguish between recall, recognition and relearning** **Recall** (least sensitive) -- identifying the correct option without being given a list of possible answers (e.g. short-answer questions in exams) **Recognition** (moderately sensitive) -- selecting the correct option from a list of alternatives (e.g. multiple choice in exams) **Relearning** (most sensitive) -- learning something faster and/or with fewer errors compared to when it was first/previously learnt (e.g. improved score after redoing exams) **Describe how information is lost from memory through encoding failure, retrieval failure and interference effects** **Encoding failure:** This occurs when information fails to be encoded into long-term memory. E.g. the reason you can't access a memory is because it wasn't properly formed. **Retrieval failure:** This occurs when the memory is there, but you can't access it. E.g. you have a word on the tip of your tongue and you know that you know the word but you can't recall it **Interference effects:** These occur when other memories cause problems with the retrieval of information from long-term memory. This can be broken into interferences: [Proactive interference ] - where old memories inhibit new ones - e.g. if you can't recall where a new classroom is because you keep recalling the old ones [Retroactive interference] - where new memories inhibit old ones - e.g. forgetting old passwords once you have made new ones **Discuss strategies to improve memory, including chunking, rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative) and mnemonics (e.g. the method of loci and SQ4R method --- survey, question, read, recite, relate, and review).** **Chunking:** - [improves the capacity of short-term memory by grouping items together ] - the capacity of short term memory is [7 ± 2]{.math.inline} items, so if wanting to hold 10 or more things in short-term memory, we need to group them together - e.g. the number 1800876278 has 10 digits and is hard to remember. However with chunking we have 1800 876 278 which is only 3 items and much easier to remember **Rehearsal:** [Maintenance rehearsal ] - this involves repeating information again and again, and is used to increase the duration of short-term memory [Elaborative rehearsal ] - this involves making connections between information and is used to improve encoding into long-term memory - this is a deeper form of processing than maintenance rehearsal and is more active **Mnemonics:** A mnemonic is a strategy which aids memory (e.g. using ROY G BIV to remember the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) [Method of loci ] - also known as the 'memory palace' technique where information is associated with a particular location on an imaginary journey (note: loci = locations) - the idea is that you select a place you can easily visualise and you place content in there representing the information you want to remember [SQ4R] - this stands for Survey, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review and is a strategy which aids retention of reading materials - Survey: you can scan the chapter for key features such as headings, graphs, and key words - Question: you ask questions that you think will be answered once you have read the chapter - Read: you actively read the text, trying to find answers for the questions you asked - Reflect: you take notes and write down key points and answers to your questions - Recite: you speak aloud what you have covered using your notes from the previous stage as a guide - Review: you revisit the content using the end of chapter summaries, notes, etc **Topic 4** **Learning** **Compare classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov 1897/1902), operant conditioning (BF Skinner 1948) and social learning theory (Albert Bandura 1977)** **Classical conditioning:** a form of learning where 2 events or stimuli are associated. Classical conditioning applies to involuntary behaviours and is considered a passive form of learning. It's when an organism learns to connect a naturally occurring response to a learned stimulus via association. 3 phases for classical conditioning: [Pre conditioning ] - Involves a natural/automatic response (UCR) to some sort of stimulus (UCS) - This is explained as unconditioned responses (UCR) to and unconditioned stimulus (UCS), no associations have been made - During this phase there is also a second, neutral stimulus (NS) present that does not generate any response [During conditioning] - In the conditioning phase the neutral stimulus (NS) is present at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - As a result the organism learns to associate the NS with the UCS eliciting the same UCR - As this association becomes more concrete the NS is no longer neutral and has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) - Methods of association: - Repetition -- repeated exposure of the NS at the same time the UCS is presented - Profound experience -- an experience with strong emotional connections such as trauma or an extremely significant event (e.g. near death experience) [Post conditioning] - In the final phase after conditioning has occurred, the presence of the conditioned stimulus (CS -- originally the NS), produces the same automatic response (UCR) and the original UCS - When this happens the automatic response (UCR) is now considered to be a conditioned response (CR) as the original stimulus no longer needs to be present for the response to occur on the CS A paper with text and words Description automatically generated **Operant conditioning:** occurs when we learn by having a situation/stimulus which prompts a behaviour (antecedent), then us acting/reacting (behaviour), followed by a result (consequence). It's a type of learning in which a voluntary behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences (positive/negative). It is a 3 phase process (ABC model). The ABC of operant conditioning: [The Antecedent (discriminative stimulus): ] - Refers to the action, event, or circumstance that led up to the behaviour occurring and encompasses anything that might contribute to the behaviour occurring - E.g. the antecedent may be a request from a teacher, the presence of another person or student, or even a change in the environment [The Behaviour:] - Refers to what the subject does in response to the antecedent (discriminative stimulus) - Behaviours can be desirable or undesirable and can be reinforced or extinguished by the given consequence [The consequence:] - An action or response that follows the behaviour - Consequences are classified as being reinforcers or punishers - Reinforcer = any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring (can be positive or negative) - Punisher = any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring (can be positive or negative) **Social learning theory:** - explains how people can learn from those around them - a type of learning which occurs by a person watching behaviour demonstrated by others (role model) - can influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviour - important form of learning for children during early development - when a learner mimics an observed behaviour this is called 'modelling' - has 4 principles and a 5 stage learning process - [Principles of social learning theory:] 1. Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours 2. Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour (can come at later stage) 3. Cognition plays a role in observational learning -- learner has awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments which influence if the learnt behaviour will be demonstrated or not 4. Observational learning is a link between the behavioural theories of learning and cognitive learning theories - [Stages of learning theory:] Stage 1 -- Attention: learner actively watches model Stage 2 -- Retention: learner stores mental representation of behaviour Stage 3 -- Reproduction: learner has the mental and physical ability to perform behaviour Stage 4 -- Motivation: environmental stimuli make learner wish to perform behaviour Stage 5 -- Reinforcement: positive outcome means the learner will repeat the behaviour when again motivated to do so *\*Through stages 1-4, the learning is latent. This is the point when behaviour is shown*  **For classical conditioning:** 1. **recall the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) ­** 2. **distinguish between stimulus generalisation and discrimination ­** 3. **describe extinction and spontaneous recovery ­** 4. **describe learned fear responses (John Watson --- the 'Little Albert' experiment) (Watson & Rayner 1920)** 1. **For operant conditioning:** 1. **distinguish between negative and positive reinforcement and punishment ­** 2. **describe stimulus generalisation and discrimination ­** 3. **describe extinction and spontaneous recovery** 1. **Positive (+)** **Negative (-)** ------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------- **Reinforcement** Application of a pleasant stimulus (e.g. getting a toy) Removal of an unpleasant stimulus (e.g. not being nagged anymore) **Punishment** Application of an unpleasant stimulus (being nagged) Removal of a pleasant stimulus (having a toy confiscated) 2. 3. **For social learning theory, distinguish between modelling and vicarious conditioning.**