Neuroscience: Visual and Language Areas

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Questions and Answers

What role does Broca's area play in language processing?

Coordinates messages for speech production (correct)

Processes written language for understanding

Integrates visual and auditory information

Facilitates comprehension of speech

What happens when there is damage to Wernicke's area?

Severe difficulty in articulating sounds

Fluent speech made up of nonsensical words (correct)

Complete comprehension of spoken language

Inability to produce any speech

Which structure is primarily responsible for coordinating voluntary movement?

Visual cortex

Occipital lobe

Cerebellum (correct)

Wernicke's area

What does Geschwind's area connect?

Broca's and Wernicke's areas Signup and view all the answers

How is visual field information processed in the brain?

The right half of each eye processes the right visual field Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the central executive in the working model of memory?

To supervise other memory systems Signup and view all the answers

Which component is responsible for processing auditory information in the working memory model?

Phonological loop Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of excitatory neurotransmitters?

To increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing Signup and view all the answers

In the levels of processing model, what primarily influences how long a memory trace lasts?

How deeply the memory is processed Signup and view all the answers

What does the episodic buffer primarily do in the working model of memory?

Combines information from different memory systems Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter serves as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system?

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Signup and view all the answers

What types of processing are identified in the levels of processing model?

Shallow and deep processing Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of acetylcholine in the nervous system?

It acts on skeletal muscles controlled by the somatic nervous system. Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the reward system and pleasurable emotions?

Dopamine Signup and view all the answers

Which system would help you remember the layout of a room when your eyes are closed?

Visuospatial sketchpad Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the number of AMPA receptors when glutamate is released?

They increase to enhance the acceptance of subsequent glutamate. Signup and view all the answers

What does a deeper level of processing refer to in memory retention?

Meaningfulness extracted from stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is associated with reducing anxiety symptoms?

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a system described in the working model of memory?

Visual processor Signup and view all the answers

What role does norepinephrine play in the body?

It is involved in control of mood and arousal. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following pairs correctly match a neurotransmitter to its associated condition or function?

Dopamine - Parkinson's disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of chunking in memory improvement?

To group items together for easier recall Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interference occurs when old memories inhibit the recall of new information?

Proactive interference Signup and view all the answers

What is elaborative rehearsal primarily used for?

To encode information into long-term memory Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes retrieval failure?

The information exists but cannot be accessed Signup and view all the answers

What effect does maintenance rehearsal have on short-term memory?

It increases the duration of short-term memory storage Signup and view all the answers

What is a common example of retroactive interference?

Forgetting a previous address after moving Signup and view all the answers

What does the SQ4R method stand for?

Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Relate, Review Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a strategy to improve memory?

Visual distraction Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the terms in classical conditioning?

CR is learned through association with the UCS. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between positive reinforcement and negative punishment?

Positive reinforcement provides a pleasant stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of operant conditioning, which statement is true regarding extinction?

Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates stimulus generalization?

A dog salivates to a bell and also to a whistle. Signup and view all the answers

What is vicarious conditioning within social learning theory?

Learning by observing the rewards or punishments others receive. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Visual Cortex

The primary visual cortex is located at the back of each occipital lobe
The visual field is divided into the left and right visual fields
The left half of each eye receives information about the right visual field
This information is then sent to the primary visual cortex in the left hemisphere
The right half of each eye receives information about the left visual field
This information is then sent to the primary visual cortex in the right hemisphere

Language Areas

Broca's area is responsible for coordinating messages to areas required for speech production (tongue, jaw, and mouth)
Broca's area is responsible for articulate sounds, if it is damaged, this can result in trouble speaking
Wernicke's area is crucial for the comprehension of speech
Wernicke's area processes words, without it, words are meaningless noise
Damage to Wernicke's area results in difficulty speaking in a meaningful way
Geschwind's area connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas
It is not well-studied, but thought to be important for integrating different types of information related to communication
It is thought to be important for language development in childhood

Motor Coordination

Voluntary movement is coordinated from the primary motor cortex, the cerebellum, and the basal ganglia
These receptors signal for ion channels on the dendrite to open
Ions flood into the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron
This starts an electrical signal

Excitatory and Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters can be broadly grouped into two categories: excitatory and inhibitory
This is because each neurotransmitter has a different chemical shape and thus can attach to different receptors on the dendrite
Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing
The central nervous system's excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate (Glu)
Glu is associated with learning and memory
Glu has two main receptors; AMPA and NMDA
AMPA prepares the postsynaptic neuron to accept Glu
NMDA accepts Glu
The amount of AMPA receptors on the dendrite increase, meaning that next time Glu is released, there are more receptors available to allow it to be accepted
Inhibitory neurotransmitters reduce the likelihood of the postsynaptic firing
The central nervous system's primary neurotransmitter is gamma aminobutyric acid (GABBA)
GABBA counterbalances excitatory neurotransmitters such as Glu
GABBA is associated with reducing anxiety symptoms

### Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a common excitatory neurotransmitter
It acts on skeletal muscles (muscles the somatic nervous system controls)
It is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system
Acetylcholine is also used within the central nervous system (thalamus)
Deterioration of the neural pathways where acetylcholine acts are associated with Alzheimer's disease

Dopamine

Dopamine is part of the brain's reward system
It is important for pleasurable emotions
Dopamine is important for coordinating voluntary movement
It has roles in sustained attention and problem solving
Decreased levels of dopamine have a key role in Parkinson's disease

Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline

Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline is an excitatory neurotransmitter and hormone
It is involved in control of mood and arousal
It can impact sleep

Central Executive

The most important component of the working model of memory is the central executive
The central executive has limited ability to store information
It supervises the 'slave' systems.

Phonological Loop

This system processes and stores auditory information
This includes the articulatory control system (inner voice) and phonological store (inner ear)
When you recall the sounds of your favourite song or know what someone said a second ago, this is your phonological loop at work

Visuospatial Sketchpad

This system is responsible for visual and spatial information
If you close your eyes your are likely to still remember what colour the room is and recall the position of some objects within it, this can be attributed to the visuospatial sketchpad

Episodic Buffer

The episodic buffer is a relatively late addition to the working model of memory
It prepares memories for storage in episodic long-term memory
Episodic memory contains your memories of the events, or episodes of your life
The episodic buffer combines information from different systems and long-term memory to create 'episodes'
For example, the episodic buffer may combine information about what your friend said (phonological loop), their expression as they said it (visuospatial sketchpad), and a previous conversation you had (from long-term memory).

“Levels of Processing (LOP) Model of Memory"

The levels of processing model proposes that memory is retained on the basis of how deeply it is processed
The levels of processing model suggests that the other 2 models we have looked at aren't quite right and focus too much in subdividing memory into different storage categories
In the levels of processing model, there aren't distinct stores and the focus is on how deeply a memory is processed
Depth refers to the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus
The more deeply information is processed, the longer a memory trace is predicted to last
Depth of processing is divided into two broad categories: shallow processing and deep processing
The deeper the information is processed, the more likely the memory trace will be retained
For example, remembering a phone number would require shallow processing, whereas remembering the main points from a lecture would require deep processing.

Relearning

Relearning is a measure of memory retention, as it is the most sensitive
When relearning previous material, we learn it faster and/or with fewer errors

Encoding Failure

Encoding failure occurs when information fails to be encoded into long-term memory
The reason you can't access a memory is because it wasn't properly formed
For example, forgetting someone’s name, as you never properly recalled it in the first place

Retrieval Failure

This occurs when the memory is there, but you can’t access it
You know you know the word, but you can't recall it
For example, having a word on the tip of your tongue

Interference Effects

Interference effects occur when other memories cause problems with the retrieval of information from long-term memory.
These can be broken into two types of interference: proactive interference, and retroactive interference.

Proactive Interference

Old memories inhibit new ones
For example, if you can't recall where a new classroom is because you keep recalling the old ones

Retroactive Interference

New memories inhibit old ones
For example, forgetting old passwords once you have made new ones.

Chunking

Chunking improves the capacity of short-term memory by grouping items together
The capacity of short-term memory is 7±2 items
If we want to hold 10 or more things in short-term memory, we need to group them together
For example, the number 1800876278 has 10 digits and is hard to remember. However, with chunking, we have 1800 876 278 which is only 3 items and much easier to remember.

Rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal

This involves repeating information again and again.
It is used to increase the duration of short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

This involves making connections between information.
It is used to improve encoding into long-term memory.
This is a deeper form of processing than maintenance rehearsal and is more active.

Mnemonics

A mnemonic is a strategy which aids memory
For example, a popular mnemonic is "Roy G. Biv" to remember the colors of the rainbow (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet).

Method of Loci

Involves mentally placing items in a familiar location
For example, if you need to remember your grocery list (milk, bread, cheese), imagine placing a milk carton on your kitchen table, a loaf of bread on your kitchen counter, and a block of cheese in your fridge.

SQ4R Method

This is a mnemonic method which is used to improve the recall of information from textbooks.
The SQ4R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Relate, and Review.

Classical Conditioning

Recall the unconditioned stimulus (UCS): The UCS is a stimulus that naturally elicits a specific response
Recall the unconditioned response (UCR): The UCR is the natural response to the UCS
Recall the neutral stimulus (NS): The NS is a stimulus that does not initially elicit the response
Recall the conditioned stimulus (CS): The CS is the previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, elicits the response
Recall the conditioned response (CR): The CR is the learned response to the CS, which is similar to the UCR

Stimulus Generalisation

This occurs when the CR is elicited by stimuli that are similar to the CS
For example, if a dog has been conditioned to fear a bell, it might show a fear response to other sounds that are similar to the bell.

Stimulus Discrimination

This occurs when the CR is only elicited by the CS, and not by other stimuli
For example, if a dog has been conditioned to fear a bell, it might not show a fear response to other sounds, even if they are similar.

Extinction

This refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a CR when the CS is presented without the UCS
For example, if a dog has been conditioned to fear a bell, and the bell is repeatedly presented without the food, the dog’s fear response to the bell will eventually disappear.

Spontaneous Recovery

After extinction, the CR may reappear, even if the CS has not been paired with the UCS
For example, if the dog’s fear response to the bell has disappeared after extinction, the response may reappear if the bell is presented again after a period of time.

Learned Fear Responses

John Watson and his colleagues showed that fear could be classically conditioned
They conducted a famous study with a baby named Albert
They demonstrated that Albert could be conditioned to fear a white rat
By pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud, startling noise, Albert began to fear the rat, even in the absence of the noise

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that occurs when a behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

The application of a pleasant stimulus following a behavior
For example, a toy or a treat
This is a form of strengthening a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior
For example, not being nagged to do a chore
This is also a form of strengthening a behavior.

Positive Punishment

The application of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior
For example, being nagged
This is a form of weakening a behavior.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus following a behavior
For example, having a toy confiscated
This is also a form of weakening a behavior.

Modeling

Involves learning by observing the behaviors of others
For example, a child might learn to say "please" and "thank you" by observing their parents doing so.

Vicarious Conditioning

Involves learning by observing the consequences of other people’s behaviors
For example, if a child sees their friend get scolded for being rude, the child may be less likely to be rude themselves.

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Description

Explore the critical functions of the visual cortex and language areas in the brain. This quiz covers the anatomy and roles of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, as well as how visual information is processed. Test your understanding of these fundamental neuroscience concepts.