Unit 3: Cognitive Approach in Motivation 2023/24 PDF

Unit 3: Biological, cognitive and personality approach in motivation Psychology of Motivation and Emotion Faculty of Psychology, Universitat de València Academic year 2023/24 Prof. Sandra Simó Contents 1. Biological variables involved in Psychology of Motivation 2. Cognitive variables involved in Ps...

Unit 3: Biological, cognitive and personality approach in motivation Psychology of Motivation and Emotion Faculty of Psychology, Universitat de València Academic year 2023/24 Prof. Sandra Simó Contents 1. Biological variables involved in Psychology of Motivation 2. Cognitive variables involved in Psychology of Motivation 3. Personality variables involved in Psychology of Motivation (Happiness, Arousal, and Control) MATERIAL WE WILL USE (and you will use to study for the exam) Chapter 8: Goal setting and goal striving. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Wiley. Chapter 9: Mindsets. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Wiley. Chapter 10: Personal Control Beliefs. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Wiley. Chapter 11: The self and its strivings. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Wiley. Chapter 15: Growth motivation and positive psychology. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Chapter 16: Unconscious motivation. Understanding motivation and emotion (7ª Ed). Reeve, J. (2018). Wiley, Pp. 403-408. YouTube videos that we will see in class (ADVICE: review them at home and take notes). Slides. Material that we will create here in class (activities). 1. Biological-physiological variables of motivation included in Unit 1 [chapter 3 “the motivated and emotional brain” (Reeve, 2018)] and in unit 5 [chapter 4 “physiological needs” (Reeve, 2018)]. 2. Cognitive variables of motivation 2.1. The cognitive perspective on motivation 2.2. Plans 2.3. Goal setting and goal striving 2.4. Mindsets 2.5. Personal control beliefs 2.6. The self and its strivings Problem of the day Why do people not do their best when they “try to do their best?” Even when people have a goal to pursue, they often do not attain that goal. Why? 2.1. The cognitive perspective on motivation Cognitively-based Springs to Action Goals Mindsets Personal Control Plans Deliberative vs. Self-Efficacy Goals Implementation Perceived Control Implementation Promotion vs. Mastery Beliefs Intentions Prevention Attributions Growth vs. Fixed Expectancy Dissonance Value Self Self-Concept Possible Selves Identity Self-Regulation Self-Control 2.2. Plans Present state Ideal state Discrepancy  Discrepancy reduction  Discrepancy creation Based on the discrepancy-detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation Is reactive Deficiency overcoming resolves around a feedback system. Based on a “feed-forward” system in which the person looks forward and proactively sets a future, higher goal. Is proactive. Discrepancy creation corresponds to goal-setting motivation  Plan: organizes behavior toward the pursuit of the ideal state in order to remove the incongruity. test operate test exit TOTE- model, Miller, Gallanter y Pribram (1969) Incongruity corrective motivation that activates a decision-making process in which the individual considers many different possible ways for reducing incongruity: - Devicing a good plan - Carrying out the plan - Progress towards the ideal state produces positive emotions 2.3. Goal setting and goal striving Goal Whatever an individual is striving to accomplish. A desired end-state that guides behavior. A future-focused cognitive representation of a desired end-state that guides behavior. Goal Mechanisms (that explain the extent to which the goal does or does not translates into performance gains) Goal Difficulty: How hard the goal is to accomplish. The more difficult the goal, the more it energizes the performer (Increases effort, person works harder, and increases persistence, person works longer) Goal Specificity: How clearly the goal informs the person precisely what he or she is to do. Specific goals produces a relatively narrow range of performance that orients toward the goal (direct attention and strategic planning). Goal Congruence: How fully endorses, authentic, and whole-heartedly accepted, embraced, and owned by the self. It involves the decision (will) of the person to accept or reject the goal. Feedback that documents the performers progress in relation to the goal enhances performance. Feedback documents the performer’s progress towards goal attainment. The fundamental importance of feedback or, Knowledge of Results Above-standard (1) Feedback defines performance Therefore, instructive to future goal setting efforts At-standard Below-standard (2) Feedback acts as a reinforcer (or punisher) Short-term vs. Long-term Goal- Setting Example of short-term goal: Pass Exam 3 in my Psychology course Example of long-term goal: Become a teacher in Public School System Problems with Long-Term Goals (LTGs) 1 With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can be expected to decrease. 2 LTGs don’t provide/generate immediate performance feedback. * Therefore, performer may benefit by translating a long-term goal into a series of short-term goals. * This solution is especially necessary if the long-term goal is a relatively uninteresting task to perform. Dangers and pitfalls in Goal-Setting Increased Stress *Goals seen as too difficult *Goal overload *Goal conflict Possibility for Failure *Difficult goals may lead to sub-goal performance and therefore to detrimental emotional consequences associated with failure. 3 Non-goal Areas Ignored *The purpose of goal is to focus attention and action in certain directions. So non-goal areas are intentionally devalued. 4 Short-Range Thinking *Proximal vs. Distal goal-setting debate. 1 2 5 6 *Goals, when made public and when involving extrinsic Cheating Undermines Intrinsic Motivation incentives, can create performance pressure and prompt efforts at cheating rather than effort at skill development. *If task is interesting, short-term goals are typically experienced as controlling and undermine intrinsic motivation (IM). *If task is uninteresting, short-term goals can create competence feedback and increase intrinsic motivation. Origins of a Goal Events that explain from where our goals come from Others assign us a goal Self-efficacy beliefs Value of the end-state Personality traits Physiological needs Psychological needs Role models Adoption of a Goal to Strive for Goal Setting and Goal Striving Goal Setting 1. Identify the objective to be accomplished. 2. Define goal difficulty. 3. Clarify goal specificity. 4. Ask why you are pursuing this goal (clarify goal-self concordance). 5. Specify how and when performance will be assessed. Goal Striving 6. Identify goal-attainment strategies. 7. Create “if-then” implementation intentions. 8. Make performance feedback available. Implementation Intentions Goal Pursuit Goal Pursuit Getting Started Persisting & Finishing Attaining goals requires not only effective goal setting but also a pre-action period in which one decides when, where, and how that goal will be implemented. Implementation intentions help direct one’s attention toward goal-directed action while excluding distractions Implementation Intentions An “if-then” plan that specifies in advance the goal striving process. Deciding in advance (a pre-action period) on when, where, and how goal-striving is to occur. It is an awkward term but: Goal intention: Setting the goal. “I intend to …”. Implementation intention: Striving to accomplish that goal. “I intend to practice at this time, in this place, and by doing this”. Implementation Intentions (2) Planning how to attain the goal a) Getting started, despite daily distractions (c) Resuming, once an interruption occurs (b) Persisting, in spite of difficulties and setbacks Goal Disengagement An essential part of effective goal pursuit is knowing when to stop—knowing when to give up on one goal and switch over to an alternative goal. For unattainable goals, we need to know when to switch over to an attainable goal. Goal disengagement: Reduction of effort (Trying less hard or stopping altogether), reduction of goal commitment (reducing the importance that is attached to the goal). Goal Disengagement becomes an adaptive course of action when it leads the person to take up a new, alternative, purpose-endowing goal or when it enhances the extent of effort, persistence, attention, and strategic planning invested in one’s remaining goals, as it frees up resources in the pursuit of one’s remaining goals. Steps in an Effective Goal-Setting Program Sequential Steps within the Goal-Setting Process Specify the objective to be accomplish ed Check on goal acceptance Define goal difficulty Discuss goal attainment strategies Define goal specificity Create implementation intentions Sequential Steps within the Goal-Striving Process Specify the time span until performance will be assessed Provide performance feedback Goal Striving When people fail to realize the goals they set for themselves, part of the failure can be explained by how they set the goal: Was the goal difficult? Specific? Self-Concordant? The other part of why people fail to attain their goals is simply that they fail to act on the goals they set for themselves. “A goal without a plan is just a dream.” “I had all day to pursue my goal, but I just never got started for some reason…” 2.4. Personal control beliefs Efficacy expectations and outcome expectations Person (Self/agent) Behavior (Action/means) Efficacy expectation “Can I do it?” Expectation of being able to enact the behaviors one needs in order to cope effectivelly with the situation at hand. Outcome (Control/ends) Outcome expectation “Will it work?” Expectation that one´s behavior will produce positive outcomes (or prevent negative outcomes). Perceived Control Pre-performance, in-performance, and post-performance expectancies regarding the extent to which one possesses the capacity needed to attain desired outcomes and to prevent undesired outcomes. Beliefs and expectations the person holds that he or she can interact with the environment in ways that produce desired outcomes and prevent undesired outcomes. For such control to happen, a person needs two things: 1. Self must be capable of obtaining the sought-after outcomes. 2. Situation in which one attempts to exercise control over needs to be somewhat predictable and responsive to one’s control attempts. Basic idea: If the world is predictable and responsive (i.e., potentially controllable), and if you possess skills, exert effort, and utilize constructive strategies, then you can justifiably expect to have control over what matters to you. Coping with Failure— Adaptively (High Personal Control) or Maladaptively (Low Personal Control) Preliminary Self-Efficacy Analysis and Forecast As you see yourself performing a given task,… What do you expect to happen? Describe what you expect to happen with a “play-by-play.” How do you expect to feel during each of these events? What skills will you need to cope effectively during this task? How effective (or ineffective) do you anticipate those skills will prove themselves to be? If things go unexpectedly wrong, can you make the necessary corrective adjustments? Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Self-Efficacy One’s judgment of how well (or poorly) one will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces. Generative capacity in which the performer improvises ways to best translate personal abilities into effective performance. Bandura (1994): Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html Personal Behavior History Choice (Approach vs. Avoid) Vicarious Experience (Modeling) Effort and Persistence Extent of Self-Efficacy Verbal Persuasion (Pep Talk) Thinking and Decision Making Physiological Activity Emotional Reactions (Stress, Anxiety) Self-Efficacy View on Anxiety and Avoidance Self-efficacy theory argues that it is perceived inefficacy in coping with potentially aversive events that makes the events anxiety-producing and threatening to us. That is, the fear of being overwhelmed—of not being able to cope—that causes anxiety. Using this logic, self-efficacy researchers argue that if teachers can find ways to build coping skills in their students, then students’ perceived capacity to cope (i.e., self-efficacy) will eliminate their anxiety and avoidance motivations. Stated more directly: Self-inefficacy causes anxiety and avoidance. Self-efficacy empowers approach-based motivation. Source: Bandura, A. (1983). Self-efficacy determinants of anticipated fears and calamites. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 464-469. Empowerment Empowerment involves possessing the knowledge, skills, and beliefs that allow people to exert control over their lives. Self-Efficacy Beliefs Skills Knowledge Empowerment Empowering People via a Mastery Modeling Program How to Implement a Mastery Modeling Program 1. Expert identifies component skills involved in effective coping and measures novices’ efficacy expectation on each component skills. 2. Expert models each component skill, emphasizing the novices’ most worrisome skill areas. 3. Novices emulate each modeled skill. Expert provides corrective feedback, as needed. 4. Novices integrate the separate component skills into an overall simulated performance. Expert introduces only mild obstacles and helps novices integrate the different skill components into a coherent overall performance. 5. Novices participate in cooperative learning groups. One person gives a simulated performance while peers watch. As they watch, peers provide encouragement and tips. Each person takes a turn until everyone has performed multiple times. 6. Novices perform individually in a near-naturalistic situation that features numerous and realistic difficulties, obstacles, and setbacks while the expert provides modeling and corrective feedback. 7. Expert models confident demeanor and arousal-regulating Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All techniques. Mastery beliefs The extent of perceived control one has over attaining desirable outcomes and preventing aversive ones. Mastery motivation: Performer’s belief that he/she can generate multiple viable routes to desired goals “I will find a way to get this done.” Mastery orientation The psychological state that results when an individual expects that life’s outcomes are controllable. My Behavior Outcomes that Happen to Me Other (Uncontrollable) Influences Way of Coping Illustration Approach vs. Avoidance Taking action by moving toward and interacting with the problem vs. walking away from the problem Social vs. Solitary Taking action with a team of others vs. acting alone Proactive vs. Reactive Taking action to prevent a problem before vs. after it occurs Direct vs. Indirect Taking action oneself versus enlisting the help of an intermediary who takes the direct action Control vs. Escape Take-charge approach versus staying clear of the situation Alloplastic vs. Autoplastic Problem Focused vs. Emotion Focused Taking action to change the problem versus taking action to change oneself Taking action to manage the problem causing the stress versus regulating one’s emotional response to the problem Mastery Motivational Orientation A hardy, resistant portrayal of the self during encounters of failure Failure feedback can be helpful and constructive information. “The harder it gets, the harder I need to try” “I love a challenge” Helpless Motivational Orientation A fragile view of the self during encounters of failure Failure feedback is a sign of personal inadequacy. “I´m not good at things like this”, “I guess I´m not very smart” Learned helplessness The psychological state that results when an individual expects that life’s outcomes are uncontrollable. My Behavior Outcomes that Happen to Me Other (Uncontrollable) Influences During Failure (When Positive Outcomes Are Hard to Gain Control Over) Mastery-Oriented Students Helpless-Oriented Students Energized by setbacks; energized by failure feedback. Effort withdrawal; avoidance in the face of setbacks, failure feedback. Improve problem-solving strategies: “I need to try harder.” “I need a better strategy.” Immature problem-solving strategies: Wild guesses Acting silly Focus: How can I gain control over this failure? What Failure Means: “The harder a task is, the harder I need to try.” Focus: Negative emotionality, Punishing aspects of failure. What Failure Means: “I am not very smart; I’m not good at this.” Tell-Tale Sign of Helplessness: How quickly, how emphatically the student gives up at the first sign of a lack of control. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Three Components of Learned Helplessness Contingency Objective relationship between a person’s behavior and the environment’s outcomes Cognition Subjective personal control beliefs Biases Attributions Expectancies Behavior Listless, demoralized coping behavior Three Effects of Helplessness Motivational Deficits Decreased willingness to try “Why try?“ Learning Deficits Acquired pessimistic set that interferes with one’s ability to learn new response-outcome contingencies Emotional Deficits Energy-depleting emotions (e.g., Listlessness, apathy, depression) Helplessness and Depression Key Question: Is depression caused by people’s belief that their world is largely an uncontrollable place? Answer: No. Depressed individuals accurately assess their extent of control. Instead, it is the non-depressed individuals who miss-perceive their extent of control (by overestimate it—see green circle). Extent of the individual´s perceived control in the environment Extent of the individual´s actual objective control in the environment Definition Relatively stable cognitively-based personality variable that reflects the habitual way that people explain the reasons why bad events happen to them. Explanatory style: Relatively stable cognitively-based personality variable that reflects the habitual way that people explain the reasons why bad events happen to them. Optimistic Pessimistic Explanatory Style Explanatory Style Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are unstable and controllable. “I wrecked my car because I wasn’t paying attention at that moment.” Related to the self-serving bias of an illusion of control which contributes to enhancing self-esteem and promoting an optimistic view of the future Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are stable and uncontrollable “I wrecked my car because there are nothing but crazy lunatics driving the streets.” Associated with academic failure, social distress, impaired job performance, and depression Differential pattern of attributions made by people with a pessimistic or optimistic explanatory style. An attribution is the reason the persons uses to explain an important life outcome. The attribution roots to the seven emotions (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) Expectancy Value Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved HOPE High self-efficacy Performer’s perceived capacity to accomplish the goals. Clear Pathways to goal attainment Performer’s belief that he/she can generate multiple viable routes to desired goals. “I will find a way to get this done.” “I can do this.” Self-Efficacy Mastery Motivation 2.4. Mindsets A cognitive framework (e.g., beliefs) to guide one’s attention, information processing, decision-making, and thinking about the meaning of effort, success, failure, and one’s own personal qualities. Once adopted, a mindset functions as a cognitive motivational system that produces many important downstream motivational consequences in one’s thinking, feeling, acting, lifestyle, and ways of coping. Mindset 1: Deliberative-Implemental Two sequential ways of thinking to differentiate the patterns of thought that occurs during goal-setting versus that which occurs during goal striving. Deliberative: An open-minded way of thinking to consider the desirability and feasibility of a range of possible goals that one might or might not pursue. What goal should I pursue? What do I want? Should I do this or not? Implemental: A post-decisional closed-minded way of thinking that considers only information related to goal attainment and shields against non-goal-related considerations. A closed-mindedness, “Let’s get this done.” Mindset 2: Promotion-Prevention Two different orientations people adopt during goal striving to distinguish an eager improvement-based regulatory style from a vigilant security based regulatory style. Promotion: A focus on advancing the self toward ideals by adopting and eager locomotion behavioral strategy. The individual is sensitive to positive outcomes Just do it Prevention: A focus on preventing the self from not maintaining one’s duties and responsibilities by adopting a vigilant behavioral strategy. The individual is sensitive to negative outcomes do the right thing Antecedents and Consequences of the Promotion Mindset Attention to Improvement Needs Goals are Seen as Ideals, Hopes, Aspirations Situations Signaling Possible Gain Sensitivity to Positive Outcomes Promotion Focus Motivational Orientation is to Attain Gains Behavioral Strategy is Fast, Eager, Locomotion Emotionality: Cheerfulness versus Dejection Antecedents and Consequences of the Prevention Mindset Attention to Security Needs Goals are Seen as Oughts, Obligations, Responsibilities Situations Signaling Possible Loss Sensitivity to Negative Outcomes Prevention Focus Motivational Orientation is to Prevent Losses Behavioral Strategy is Cautious, Vigilant, Assessment Emotionality: Calm versus Agitation Different Definitions of Success and Failure Promotion Focus Success means the presence of gain. Person strives to attain a positive outcome. Positive outcome takes the form of advancement or improved state of affairs. Failure has no special meaning. Prevention Focus Success means the absence of loss. Person strives to maintain a satisfactory state. Success means that no change has occurred. Failure means a loss and a painful change has occurred. Different Goal-Striving Strategies Promotion Focus Gain-based strategy can be characterized as open-mindedness, exploration, locomotion, acting fast, and eager approach. What feels right: Complete schoolwork promptly. Attend all classes. Spend more time in the library. Be prepared for tests. Increase motivation to earn high GPA. Prevention Focus Safety-based strategy can be characterized as being cautious, staying committed, staying the course, protecting one’s commitments, playing it safe, assessing where one stands and being vigilant. What feels right: Stop procrastinating. Avoid missing any classes. Spend less time at social events. Avoid being unprepared for tests. Do not lose motivation to earn high GPA. Differential Effects of Motivation and Well-Being Promotion Focus Exertion of effort (i.e., motivation, locomotion) and performance are best when the person strives with eagerness and approach rather than with vigilance and avoidance. Eager approach leads to feelings of interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Prevention Focus Exertion of effort (i.e., motivation, locomotion) and performance are best when the person strives with vigilance and avoidance rather than with eagerness and approach. Cautious vigilance leads to feelings of interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed Two contrasting ways of thinking about the nature of one’s personal qualities intelligence and personality traits. Growth: The belief that one’s personal qualities are malleable, changeable, and can be developed through effort. The more you try and the more you learn, the better you get. Fixed: The belief that one’s personal qualities are fixed, set, and not open to change. You either have it, or you don’t. Meaning of Effort Growth Effort is a tool. Today’s effort is what later becomes learning and skill. Effort is the means by which people turn on and vitalize the development of their skills and abilities. Fixed High effort means low ability. High effort is simply evidence that the performer lacks ability. “The more you try, the dumber you therefore must be.” “If you are not good at a subject, working hard won’t make you good at it.” Implicit theories (Dweck, 1999, 2006) The way people think about their personal qualities such as intelligence, personality or motivation. – Entity theorist: personal qualities are fixed and enduring characteristics. – Incremental theorists: personal qualities are malleable and changing characteristics..  “Your intelligence is something about you that you cannot change very much.”  “You can always greatly change how intelligent you are.” Implicit Theories Incremental theorists Growth: changeable Personal qualities Adoption of Achievement Goals Mastery Goals: People adopt Meaning of Effort Utility of effort: Challenging tasks require high effort. mastery goals and are concerned with learning something new and improving as much as they can Entity theorists Fixed Personal qualities Performance Goals: People adopt performance goals and are concerned with looking smart and not looking dumb. Concerned about good performance when others are watching. High effort signals LOW ability. Origins of Growth-Fixed Mindsets Ability Praise “You are so smart!” Ability Criticism “I’m very disappointed in you.” Genius Role Models Tiger Woods was born one-of-a-kind Tends to Grow Children’s: Ability Attributions Fixed Mindset Entity-oriented meaning system Effort/Strategy Praise “You worked so hard!” Effort/Strategy Criticism “Perhaps you could think of another way to do it.” Work Ethic Role Models Tiger Woods worked harder than everyone else Tends to Grow Children’s: Effort/Strategy Attributions Growth Mindset Incremental-oriented meaning system Cognitive models of achievement goals ¿what constitutes competence? Mastery goals:  The person seeks to develop one´s competence,  make progress,  improve the self,  overcome challenges through intense and persistent effort.  making progress according to a self-set standard.  Concerned with learning and improving Performance goals (fixed mindset) The person seeks to demonstrate or prove one’s competence, Concerned with looking smart and not looking dumb Performing well especially while beeing observed, succeed with little apparent effort. outperform others. Source: Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (1), 5-12. Essence of Achievement Goals Facing a standard of excellence, students understand that their sense of competence is being put to the test. The fundamental determinant of which type of achievement goal the student adopts is that student’s understanding of what constitutes competence. Key Questions in the Conceptualization of Competence What do you mean by success? How do you know if you are doing well? Source: Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 x 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501-519. Benefits of Adopting Mastery Goals Preference for a Challenging Task One Can Learn From Adoption of a Mastery Goal (rather than a Performance Goal) Work Harder Use Conceptually Based Learning Strategies Persist Longer Experience Greater Intrinsic than Extrinsic Motivation More Likely to Ask for Information & Help Perform Better Achievement Goals in the Classroom Manifestations of Mastery and Performance Goals in the Classroom Context Climate Dimension Mastery Goal Performance Goal Success defined as… Improvement, progress High grades, high normative performance Value placed on… Effort, learning Normatively high ability Reasons for satisfaction… Working hard, challenge Doing better than others Teacher oriented toward… How students are learning How students are performing Views errors or mistake as.. Part of learning Anxiety eliciting Focus of attention… Process of learning Own performance relative to others’ performance Reasons for effort… Learning something new High grades, performing better than others Evaluation criteria… Absolute progress Normative Strategies to Develop Achievement Motivation in Students Strategies for Parents Strategies for Teachers Assist your child to set personal goals, and monitor progress Minimise social comparison by delivering individual goal setting Give feedback on Do not allow other people or performance, based on indeed yourself to make mastery and delivered comparisons with siblings privately Strategies for Principals Ensure structures are committed to promote competence, not superiority over others Create and promote a climate that values all students' contributions, regardless of academic ability If charts are used to monitor Avoid rewarding performance Emphasise effort and growth progress, then this should outcomes, rather reward in all aspects of the learning only be comparing individual effort or task completion environment past performance Discuss topics that relate to Assist students in setting motivation, including failure realistic goals and recognise avoidance, anxiety, self-worth progress and individual progress Include students' rate of growth as part of teacher evaluation. Note. Adapted from "Understanding and Fostering Achievement Motivation," by L. M. Klose, 2008, Principal Leadership, 12-16. Mindset 4: Consistency-Dissonance The near-universal self-view that one is a competent, moral, and reasonable person. Consistency: Information and behavioral actions that confirm that, yes, one is a competent, moral and reasonable person. Dissonance: Information and behavioral actions that suggest that, no, one is actually not a competent, moral and reasonable person. “I´m a competent, moral and reasonable person” Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Assumptions A state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent with one another. Most people are motivated to justify their own actions, beliefs, and feelings. People are not rational beings; instead, people are rationalizing beings. Dissonance Reduction Strategies:     Remove the dissonant belief. Reduce the importance of the dissonant belief. Add a new consonant belief. Increase the importance of the consonant belief. 2.5. The self and its strivings What does it mean to be well psychologically? self-acceptance: positive evaluations of oneself positive interpersonal relations: close, warm relationships with others Autonomy: self-determination environmental mastery: sense of effectance in mastering circumstances and challenges purpose in life: a sense of meaning that gives one’s life a sense of direction and purpose personal growth: harboring a developmental trajectory characterized by improvement and growth (Ryff, 1989, 1995; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2002) The Self Four topics taking center stage in a motivational analysis of the self Defining or creating the self Relating the self to society Discovering and developing personal potential Managing or regulating the self Self-Esteem Five Validated Sources of Self-Esteem 1. Secure attachments in interpersonal relationships 2. Positive reflected appraisals of “how others see and evaluate us”. 3. Positive social comparisons Specific competencies we posses that are valued not only by 4. ourselves but by society 5. Positive social identities Self-Concept (cognitive structure)  Set of beliefs an individual uses to conceptualize his or her self. Mental representations of themselves.  Cluster of domain-specific self-schemas …a reflection of the invariance people have discovered in their own social behavior. (the way the self has been differentiated and articulated in memory) Benefits of Well Developed Self-Schema Self-schemas are cognitive generalizations about the self that are domain specific and learned from past experiences (Markus, 1977, 1983). Quickly retrieve self-related behavioral evidence from the domain. Process information about the self with relative ease. Benefits of Well-Developed Self-Schema Confidently predict his own future behavior in the domain. Resist counter-schematic information about him/herself. Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas Consistent Self Self-schemas direct behavior to confirm the self-view and to prevent episodes that generate feedback that might disconfirm that self-view. Possible Self Self-schemas generate motivation to move the present self toward a desired future self. Processes Underlying Self-Verification and Self-Concept Change Consistent Self Self-Concept Change Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Possible Selves Representations of attributes, characteristics, an abilities that the self does not yet possess. Mostly social in origin, as the individual observes the selves modeled by others. The possible self’s motivational role is to link the present self with ways to become the possible (ideal) self. An important piece of the puzzle in understanding how the self develops. Portraying the self as a dynamic entity with a past, present, and future. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Illustration of How Exposure to an Attractive Possible Self (Role Model) Stimulates Goal-Directed Behavior Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Identity (social relationship) Identity is the means by which the self relates to society, and it captures the essence of who the self is within a cultural context. Once people assume social roles (e.g., mother, bully), their identities direct their behaviors in ways that express the role-identity’s cultural value. The identity directs the person to pursue some behaviors (identityconfirming behaviors) and to avoid other behaviors (identity-disconfirming behaviors). Agency Self as action and development from within, as innate processes and motivations Human beings possess a core self, one energized by innate motivation and directed by the inherent developmental processes of differentiation and integration. Not all self-structures are equally authentic; while some reflect the core self, others reflect and reproduce the needs and priorities of society. Self-Concordant Model When people decide to pursue goals that are congruent or “concordant” with their core self, they pursue “self-concordant” goals. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Intrinsic Goals vs. Extrinsic Goals The Goal I am Striving for is to ________. Intrinsic Goals Aspirations and pursuits that are inherently satisfying because their pursuit gives rise to frequent and recurring opportunities for the goal striver to experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness need satisfaction along the way. Typical goals: Personal growth, relationship growth, community contribution. Extrinsic Goals Aspirations and pursuits that require contingent regard or affirmation from others and are therefore neutral or unsatisfying—because their pursuit veers the goal striver’s thoughts and behaviors off in a direction in which need satisfaction tends to be neglected or sacrificed. Typical goals: Money, fame, fortune, popularity, celebrity status. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Definition. The deliberate planning, monitoring, and evaluating of one’s academic work. The deliberate planning, monitoring, and evaluating of one’s cognitive and emotional processes prior to and during the undertaking of academic tasks. Self-Regulation Planning and strategic thinking Implementing action and self-control Monitoring and checking Reflecting and adjusting Self-regulation involves the person’s metacognitive monitoring of how his or her goal-setting progress is going. 1 2 3 4 Effective self-regulation begins and ends with effective forethought (with constructive thinking during learning) Through reflection (analysis, interpretation, self-critique), students learn and strategically improve how they manage their own learning and their own goal setting. Some Students Are Better at Self-Regulating their Learning than Are Other Students Goal-setting: Some students are more likely than others to set academic goals for themselves. Monitoring: Some students are more likely than others to monitor their progress toward goal attainment. Implementing: Some students are more likely than others to execute their strategies and resist temptations and distractions. Reflecting: Some students are more likely than others to self-evaluate their goal striving and to revise their goals and strategies as needed. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Social Learning Process To Acquire Self-Regulation Skill (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997) Self-regulation as a skill of the self, a skill that needs to be acquired, improved, and refined. Lack of SelfRegulation Skill Unable to regulate one’s goals, implementation intentions, and coping strategies in a new direction. Social Learning Process 1.Observation of expert model. 2. Imitation, social guidance, feedback. 3. Internalization of standards. 4. Self-regulatory process, including selfmonitoring, selfevaluation. Acquisition of competent SelfRegulation Skill Able to self-regulate one’s goals, behaviors, and standards in the domain. Self-control Self-control: capacity to supress, restrain, and even override an impulsive desire, urge, behavior, or tendency so to pursue a long-term goal and, instead, to steer behavior intentionally in the direction of a long-term goal (Bauer & Baumeister, 2011). It is “willpower” Researchers have identified the following seven broad spheres of self-control (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007; Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010): Suppressing impulses, urges, desires Managing and suppressing emotions Controlling and suppressing thoughts Controlling attention Making decisions and lots of choices Managing the impression one is making on others Being kind when dealing with difficult, demanding people Full Limited Strength Model of Self-Control(Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996) Replenishment Pursuit of LongTerm Goal Self-Control Temptation of Short-Term Rewards Suppression of Impulses Adherence to Social Conventions Suppression of Selfish Motivations Strength model of self-control three propositions: 1. Amount or strength of willpower is critical to the success of self-control. 2. The exertion of self-control depletes some of this resource, and hence, 3. Subsequent attempts at self-control are increasingly likely to fail. Long-Term Goal Attainment Self-Regulation Success Training Depletion Depletion self-control is more than a skill. It is an energy reserve that exists in only a limited amount. Selfcontrol depletes glucose. Long-Term Goal Failure Self-Regulation Failure Energy Replenishment Interestingly, glucose depletion and poor performance do not occur if: the person is first placed in a positive mood state when people pursue long-term goals that satisfy the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness Self-control strength can also be enhanced through practice Adaptive Self-Regulation of Unattainable Goals A person’s capacity to withdraw effort and commitment from an unattainable goal (i.e., goal disengagement) is an adaptive facet of effective self-regulation. Helps a person: avoid accumulated failure experiences. redefine the goal as not necessary for satisfaction in life. free personal resources (e.g., time and energy) that can be used to promote beneficial effects in other areas of life. The psychological benefits deriving from the engagement with a novel goal also may compensate for the distress associated with the continued pursuit of a goal that cannot be attained. 3. Individual Differences in Happiness, Arousal, and Control 3.1. Happiness 3.2. Arousal 3.3. Control Unit 3 ends here!!