Unit 1 Student Review PDF

1 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Vocabulary Agriculture The science or practice of farming, includin...

1 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Vocabulary Agriculture The science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals. Agricultural Revolution Also known as the Neolithic Revolution, this is the transformation of human (and world) existence caused by the deliberate cultivation of particular plants and the deliberate taming and breeding of particular animals. Assyrians An ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia which is in present-day Iraq. Austronesian An Asian-language family whose speakers gradually became the dominant culture of the Philippines, Indonesia, and the Pacific islands, thanks to their mastery of agriculture. Babylon An ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Babylonia in the 2nd millennium BC. Bantu An African-language family whose speakers gradually became the dominant culture of eastern and southern Africa, thanks to their agricultural techniques and, later, their ironworking skills. Bantu migration The spread of Bantu-speaking peoples from their homeland in what is now southern Nigeria or Cameroon to most of Africa, in a process that started ca. 3000 B.C.E. and continued for several millennia. BCE/CE "Before the Common Era" and it is basically equivalent to "BC", except that it doesn't have the Christian religious connotations of BC. Book of the Dead A collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts containing prayers, magic formulas, and hymns to be used for guidance and protection on the deceased journey to the afterlife. Broad Spectrum Diet Archeologists' term for the diet of gathering and hunting societies, which included a wide array of plants and animals. Cahokia An important agricultural chiefdom of North America that flourished around 1100 C.E. Catalhuyuk An important Neolithic site in what is now Turkey. (pron. cha-TAHL-hoo-YOOK) Chiefdom A societal grouping governed by a chief who typically relies on generosity, ritual status, or charisma rather than force to win obedience from the people. Civilization A society in an advanced state of social development (with complex legal and political and religious organizations) Diffusion  2 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) The gradual spread of agricultural techniques without extensive population movement. Domestication The taming and changing of nature for the benefit of humankind. End of the Last Ice Age A process of global warming that began around 16,000 years ago and ended about 5,000 years later, with the earth enjoying a climate similar to that of our own time; the end of the Ice Age changed conditions for human beings, leading to increased population and helping to pave the way for agriculture. Fertile Crescent Region sometimes known as Southwest Asia that includes the modern states of Iraq, Syria, Israel/Palestine, and southern Turkey; the earliest home of agriculture. Hammurabi's Code A comprehensive set of laws, considered by many scholars to be the oldest laws established. Harappa An ancient city (c.2600-1700 bc), in northern Pakistan. Hierarchy A system in which the people within a company or organization are organized into levels according to the authority they have. Homo Sapiens Translates to "wise man". Often referred to as Neanderthal Man; This group had large brains which gave them the intelligence to create better tools and build a sense of community evidenced by burial mounds. Horticulture Hoe-based agriculture, typical of early Agrarian societies. Hunter-Gatherer Societies Society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals), in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Intensification The process of getting more in return for less; for example, growing more food on a smaller plot of land. Jericho Site of an important early agricultural settlement of perhaps 2,000 people in present-day Israel. Mesopotamia First civilizations located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq. term means “land between the river” Sumerian culture. Migration The movement of people from one area to settle in another area. Migrations can be voluntary or forced. Mohenjo-Daro A ruined prehistoric city of Pakistan in the Indus River valley northeast of Karachi. Native Australians Often called "Aboriginals" (from the Latin ab origine, the people who had been there "from the beginning"), the natives of Australia continued (and to some extent still continue) to live by gathering and hunting, despite the transition to agriculture in nearby lands.  3 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Neolithic Revolution Wide-scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making possible an increasingly larger population "Out of Africa" States that Homo sapiens sapiens emerged in Africa and then migrated from there, and is the most widely accepted theory by scientists. Paleolithic Term used to describe early Homo sapien societies in the period before the development of agriculture Pastoral Society A human society that relies on domesticated animals rather than plants as the main source of food; pastoral nomads lead their animals to seasonal grazing grounds rather than settling permanently in a single location. Patriarchy A system of society or government in which the father or eldest male is head of the family and descent is traced through the male line. Polytheism The belief in or worship of more than one god. Rosetta Stone A black basalt that bears an inscription in hieroglyphics, demotic characters, and can give the first clue to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. "Secondary Products Revolution" A term used to describe the series of technological changes that began ca. 4000 B.C.E., as people began to develop new uses for their domesticated animals, exploiting a revolutionary new source of power Social mobility Shifting from one social status to another, commonly to a status that is either higher or lower. Stateless Societies Village-based agricultural societies, usually organized by kinship groups, that functioned without a formal government apparatus. Surplus An amount of something left over when requirements have been met. Technology The way in which people adapt their knowledge to tools and inventions. Teosinte The wild ancestor of maize. (pron. tay-oh- SIN-tay)  4 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Key Concept 1.1: Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth Big Geography refers to seeing history as a series of recurring trends to explain changes and continuities throughout history rather than and seeing history as a chronological record of events. The Peopling of the Earth refers to the migration of people out of Africa across the world. Paleolithic refers to the “stone age” where stone tools were prominent and people lived hunter-gatherer lifestyles. I. The term Big Geography draws attention to the global nature of world history. Throughout the Paleolithic period, humans migrated from Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. A. The earliest Homo Sapiens came about in Africa 250,000 years ago. B. Humans began to migrate out of Africa 100,000-60,000 years ago. 1. Spread from NE Africa across Africa and into the Middle East. 2. Moved from the Middle East north and west to Europe and east throughout Asia. 3. Moved from East Asia south to the Pacific Islands and Australia and north to cross from Siberia to America. 4. Moved south from Alaska through North and South America and east towards Greenland. C. Humans developed the ability to adapt themselves to their situation through the use of clothing and eating a variety of foods and creating tools from the local resources. D. Lived in Hunter-Gatherer societies. E. Everybody possessed the same skills and were therefore all equal in terms of social status. II. Archeological evidence indicates that during the Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands of humans gradually migrated from their origin in East Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions. A. People were very mobile as they needed to follow the migration of their game. B. Being mobile meant people could not carry surplus resources which meant only small populations could be maintained. Since food supply was unstable and food could not be stored, this lifestyle provided an unreliable food source. C. The use of fire helped sterilize food, provide protection against predators, and survive in the cold. D. After people spread across the lands, the climate warmed up and regions became more unique. People then began to adapt differently to their varied environments. This meant that people around the world began to develop unique cultures based on their environments. E. The people of Hunter-Gatherer lifestyles are thought to have had more leisure time and be generally healthier than people who settled. Key Concept 1.2: The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies The great ice ages ended about 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. The more mild conditions and warmer temperatures of the Neolithic era caused the total population of Stone Age humans to rise steeply. ○ From 2 million worldwide during the last ice age to 10 million by 5000 BCE and again to somewhere between 50 million and 1000 million by 1000 BCE.  5 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Aside from the climate, the primary cause of this population growth was because people began to domesticate animals and plates and thereby produce their own food between 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. ○ These changes gave rise to ​pastoralism ​and ​agriculture. ○ Also caused humans to manipulate their environments more than ever before. ○ This event is referred to as the ​Neolithic Revolution. I. About 10,000 years ago, the Neolithic Revolution led to the development of new and more complex economic and social systems. A. Drought in the Middle East led to the large number of animals hunters relied on to die or migrate. This forced some people to settle down near a source of water, ending the nomadic way of life and transforming people into farmers. B. Agricultural seems to have been discovered independently at several locations, then diffused to different areas. 1. Wheat and barley in the Middle East around 8000 BCE, spreading to Europe, Egypt, and North Africa over the next 4,000 years. Sub-Saharan Africa cultivated sorghum, plantains, dates, and yams. Taro was harvested in Papua New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Millet and rice were grown in India as early as 8,000 years ago. The Chinese also learned to grow millet at the same time, but probably did on their own. Early crops in the Americas, such as potatoes, corn, beans, and squash developed sometime between 12,000 and 7,000 years ago. C. Not everyone adopted agriculture. Some societies remained hunter-gatherers and others remained pastoral. D. The crops people cultivated depended on what was indigenous to their location. The nature of edible plants that grew in individual places had an impact on the development of human societies. For instance, regions that grew cereal grains had an advantage over those that grew less durable or nutritious foods. As a result, societies that cultivated these crops were more likely to produce surpluses of food. E. Pastoral nomads depended on herds of animals which they kept and followed, a lifestyle known as Pastoralism. Pastoral nomads moved in patterns based on climate because their migrations were connected to the needs of animal herds. The mobility of pastoralists made them an important conduit of technological change as they interacted with settles villages. It is possible agriculture was discovered by pastoral nomads who, upon returning to a location from the previous year, found that spilled seeds they had gathered germinated into crops. Pastoralism was seen in Africa, Europe, and Asia. F. Environmental impact of agriculture was more negative than that of hunting-foraging or pastoralism. Plant and animal species artificially selected came to dominate many ecosystems. Forest clearing, irrigation, mining, engineering projects, and urban planning vastly increased humanity’s ecological footprint on the land as common agricultural communities grew larger and more advanced. G. Human beings learned to work together in more goal oriented ways than hunter-gatherers had because farming is such hard work. Cooperation proved to be an advantage in survival.  6 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) II. Agriculture and pastoralism began to transform human societies. A. Life became more stable and in order because of the ability to require food on a daily basis. Life developed around seasons for planting and harvest. The Neolithic Revolution also brought an increase in population because the surplus in food meant a higher population could be supported. Many family groups gave way to village life. B. The surplus in food gave rise to social inequality. Previously in hunting/gathering societies, most of the people were engaged in acquiring food so the groups enjoyed a higher degree of equality. However, the surplus of food brought by agriculture allowed for the specialization of labor. Moreover, surpluses in food meant a warrior class had to emerge to protect stored food from invading nomadic groups. Some groups gained more status than others. For example, priests gained elite positions and authority because they were believed necessary for harvests. Sharper distinction between upper and lower classes and the concept of private property came to seem more natural. Male-dominated patriarchalism also appeared. C. The emergence of craftsmen and artisans due to the specialization of labor in societies made tools and technology more productive and productive. Some examples of these advancements are pottery for storage, woven textiles for clothing instead of skin, plows for greater agricultural yields, metallurgy, and wheels to facilitate the movement of goods. Early civilizations saw improved transportation and trade. Key Concept 1.3: The Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, and Urban Societies I. Core and foundational civilizations developed in a variety of geographical and environmental settings where agriculture flourished. A. About 5,000 years ago societies in regions around the world began developing, beginning the formation of civilizations. All the civilizations were based around some source of water, either being an ocean or some sort of river. a. Mesopotamia i. Laid between the Tigris and Euphrates River, located around Fertile Crescent. ii. Sumerians (a nomadic pastoral group group) were said to be one to first devise a written script (Cuneiform) and many poems to have been written, like that of the Gilgamesh Epic. Also they were the first civilization. iii. Mesopotamians developed a high level of mathematical knowledge, originating base-60 number system. b. Egypt i. The civilization began around the Nile River to get to their source of water. ii. People around 6,000 B.C.E started practicing agriculture and pastoralism. iii. Desertification brought many people closer to the center regions of Egypt. c. Indus River Civilization i. The region and the rivers used by the Indus River Civilization was the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa which were located by the Indus River Valley.  7 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) ii. Indus river people built several hundred cities. The evidence suggests they had a highly developed city life; many houses had wells and bathrooms as well as an elaborate underground drainage system. d. Shang i. The Shang civilization began forming around the Yellow River near the Huang He Valley. ii. The Shang fought their northern and western neighbors, whom they considered barbarians, and expanded their border by conquest. e. Olmecs i. The Olmecs began in Mesoamerica around what is commonly know today as Central America, bordered by the Pacific Ocean and the body of water known as the Gulf of Mexico, where soon the Maya and Aztec civilization formed. ii. Considered to have been a “mother civilization” in Mesoamerica in the same way the Sumerians were in Mesopotamia. f. Chavin i. The Chavin were in Andean South America, near the Pacific Ocean allowing access to water but closer to the Andes mountain ranges. Here also formed the Inca civilization. ii. Their chief city , was located more than 1,000 feet above the sea level. iii. Individuals clans took responsibility for maintaining roads, bridges, and irrigation systems in the difficult mountain terrain. II. The first states emerged within core civilizations. A. In the core civilizations, states soon emerged and they had lots of control over the people and large areas. Rulers of these states were typically a person and the people believed their power was to be divine and sometimes the ruler was either supported the military or not. Some of the states were either a democratic nation or a totalitarian regime. Many beliefs that we have today weren’t the same back then, like that of people being free and equal. Civilizations were typically broken down into hierarchies, leader at top of chain, then followed the elites and bureaucrats, after them were the lower classed people, and at the very bottom of the chain were slaves. B. With growth of states, competition for land and resources increased. Civilizations that had better access to resources then got more food produced, allowing for a larger population growth at the time. With growth of population meant there needed to be a growth in space for people to live, leading to the expansion of states. Many states that formed also discovered some weapons and the metal iron, which was used by the people to make tools, weapons, and armor. C. Soon after states began conquering land and people from other states, empires started to rise. Since military conquest was quite new at time and not any civilizations had communicated, there were many different religions and ethnic views throughout the empires being many of the people that were conquered over didn’t change their views. D. Skills and new technologies were typically transferred at the time through pastoral nomads. They were able to pick up new skills, like how to make the iron that the Hittites had created and  8 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) turn them into even deadlier weapons like arrow heads and with their travels they spread their knowledge. III. Culture played a significant role in unifying states through laws, language, literature, religion, myths, and monumental building. A. With time and resources available, states began constructing civil projects like that of temples, roads, walls, irrigation systems, and sewages. Only possible way for these projects to have been completed the way they were is by functional government taking charge in civil activities. Roads that were constructed were a large part because the roads meant that one city was connected to another and allowed for faster trade since paths were laid out for people. Temples were also built to respect by the government to show and respect the religion of the people. B. Government, technology, and the teachings of religion also influenced the art that was made. Each state/civilization had a different and unique art style, as well as different music, paintings, sculptures, jewelry, and clothing. All of these forms gave each state and people a sense of identity in the world. The art that was done was either politically (to honor a leader) or religiously (to honor a/their god). C. One of the first few types of communicative writings that were developed was that of the trade writing, a form which allowed for people to record financial exchanges and values through symbols. Writing was then a huge step for the people and the civilizations because it allowed for people to record history and transfer information through people easier and more accurately. Sumerians were said to be the first to have a writing technique called cuneiform and following were the Egyptians with hieroglyphs. With travel as well, groups were able to combine and soon find a similar language allowing so people understand each other and be able to communicate. D. With the introduction of writing to states, this allowed for written documents which could record government laws and legal codes. One of the first legal codes that was created was “Code of Hammurabi” which was developed by Babylonians in Mesopotamia. This law code was created wasn’t just made to institute limitations but it was meant to help protect the people of the civilization. Law codes that were created also helped strengthen the social hierarchies. E. With introduction and the merging of lots of religions at the time led to new beliefs and concepts that became the basis of further religions. a. Vedic period - Pastoral nomads that brought hymns known as Vedas to places they visited. People learned these Vedas and taught them to further generations. The Vedas told stories of different social groups know as varnas to which people were categorized. b. Hebrew Monotheism - This religion was a basic ideal that there was a single god. This belief wasn’t only that there was a single god, but that all the other gods from other religions were also false gods. That this one god is the king of all kings and that he is lord of all of earth instead of multiple gods being in control of a single aspect. c. Zoroastrianism - The belief that the world is caught in between a war between the god that is good and the one that is evil, but the god that is good is destined to be victorious. F. Trade has been around between people and civilizations for long time, it is the reason that economic exchange began. With more laws regarding trade, merchants arose and became main  9 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) regulators of trade. Trade between civilizations allowed for the states to learn new techniques and get access to resources that weren't available. G. With growth of trade, economy, politics, and society social classes and their division also changed. Laws and religion helped reinforce the hierarchical and patriarchal structures. H. With writing also came the introduction of literature. This allowed for stories, history, and poems to be recorded and passed down to future generations. Appendix Key Concept 1.1 Map 1B This map illustrates ​the migrations of humans out of Africa 100,000-60,000 years ago ​across the face of the earth, which marks the beginning of the ​Paleolithic period. Homo sapiens moved into areas with vastly different environments, each with their own terms of survival. Illustration 1C  10 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) This illustration shows the most primitive tools during the Paleolithic era. Early humans were ​characterized by the use of ​knapped ​stone tools​, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools ​which were created from the local resources around. Illustration 2E During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging wild animals for better survival. Key Concept 1.2  11 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Map 1D Agriculture was discovered independently at many different locations in the world. It then diffused into other areas as the practice was learned and adopted by others. ​The crops people cultivated depended on what was indigenous to their location. For instance, regions that grew cereal grains had an advantage over those that grew less durable or nutritious foods. As a result, societies that cultivated these crops were more likely to produce surpluses of food. Illustration 1E  12 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Not everyone adopted agriculture. Some started to domesticate and adapt to the pastoral lifestyle, which depended on the taming and alteration of animals nature which they kept and followed. ​Early dogs were domesticated, sometime between 30,000 and 14,000 BP, presumably to aid in hunting​.The mobility of pastoralists made them an important conduit of technological change as they interacted with settles villages. Illustration 2A As people began to learn that they could produce food by planting seeds, life became more stable and developed around seasons for planting and harvest. The Neolithic Revolution also brought an increase in population because the surplus in food meant a higher population could be supported. Many family groups gave way to village life. Key Concept 1.3 Map 1A  13 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Core and foundational civilizations developed in a variety of geographical and environmental settings where agriculture flourished, about 5,000 years ago societies in regions around the world began developing, beginning the formation of civilizations. All the civilizations were based around some source of water, either being an ocean or some sort of river. Illustration 2A  14 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Civilizations were typically broken down into hierarchies The Egyptian hierarchy was a lot like the pyramids that they built. At the very top of this social structure was the pharaoh; which was often thought to be a god. Under the pharaoh and the other gods, there was a chain of command to help the pharaoh accomplish all of his duties. There was a chief minister call a ‘vizier’, various nobles and the priests of the temples. The next level down contained the scribes, craftsmen, artisans, and traders. The bottom of the social structure contained the farmers and beneath them, the slaves. Image 3C As the buying and selling of goods became more involved, people needed a systematic way to remember information, this caused the development of written language, probably around 3500 B.C.E. The system of writing, ​cuneiform​, began as literal representations of quantity and pictures in Mesopotamia. Image 3D  15 Unit 1 Review: Technological and Environmental Transformations, 8000 BCE to 600 BCE (Chapters 1 -3) Th​e Code of Hammurabi was created as a way to make the laws known to the population, not only to institute limitations on people's lives but al​so to protect people from arbitrary rule and give them legal leverage. ​One striking feature of the Code of Hammurabi is its strict "eye-for-an-eye" relation between an offense and its punishment.