Introduction to the Study of Psychology PDF

1 | Page INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY Myths and Facts about Psychology MYTH #1: Psychologists are PSYCHIC. People have this misconception that Psychology students and Psychologists can read minds and even can tell future events FACT #1: Psychologists a...

1 | Page INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY Myths and Facts about Psychology MYTH #1: Psychologists are PSYCHIC. People have this misconception that Psychology students and Psychologists can read minds and even can tell future events FACT #1: Psychologists are SCIENTISTS and RESEARCHERS. We do extensive empirical (scientific) studies in order to understand and explain human behavior. MYTH #2: Psychology is easy. FACT #2: Psychology is equally tough with other fields such as information technology, engineering, and the like. MYTH #3: Psychologists earn a lot of money by listening to people talk. FACT #3: Psychologists do active listening. We don’t just listen but we use active listening to delve deeper into issues, suggest solutions and show an understanding, as well as provide comfort in some cases to those who needs help. MYTH #4: Psychology is about fixing crazy people. FACT #4: Psychology provides appreciation of the full spectrum of thoughts. We don’t just limit ourselves to helping those who are regarded as “crazy people” or in our words people with mental health conditions but also we extend our help to those who have milder problems in adjustments, careers, time management, self-awareness, etc. MYTH #5: A Good Way to Avoid Math Is To Be a Psychology Major. FACT #5: Research and statistics are a very large part of psychology. Mathematics is part of our lives as Psychology Majors. PSYCHOLOGY ⮚ Broadest sense: THE STUDY OF THE MIND ⮚ Psychology came from the Greek words “psyche” which means soul and “logos” or to study. ⮚ Psychology is the study of the soul. ⮚ Elaborate definition: The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. ⮚ Why scientific study? Because we use standardized scientific procedures to collect data ⮚ Behavior is anything a person or an animal does, feels, or thinks. It can be of two types: ⮚ Overt (easily seen/identified) such as writing, walking, reading, climbing, swimming, etc. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 2 | Page ⮚ Covert (covered/hidden) such our feelings and thoughts ⮚ “Behavior and mental processes” includes not just what people do but also their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, reasoning processes & memories, and biological activities. The thoughts that we have are reflected to our behavior. Goals of Psychology To describe particular behaviors by making careful scientific observations. To explain behaviors by conducting experiments to determine their causes. To predict when a particular behavior will occur in the future. To change inappropriate behavior or circumstances. Historical origins The roots of psychology can be traced to the great philosophers of ancient Greece. The most famous of them, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, posed fundamental questions about mental life: What is consciousness? Are people inherently rational or irrational? Is there really such a thing as free choice? These questions, and many similar ones, are as important today as they were thousands of years ago. They deal with the nature of the mind and mental processes, which are the key elements of the cognitive perspective in psychology. Although philosophers and scholars continued to be interested in the functioning of both the mind and the body through the centuries, scientific psychology is usually considered to have begun in the late nineteenth century, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was continued up to this day. Below are the psychologists and their respective schools of thought that made a strong impact in the development of Psychology as a separate sciences: A. Structuralism by Wilhelm Wundt ⮚ Psychology is about the “elements of the mind” ⮚ Wundt is regarded as the World’s First Psychologist making him known as the Father of Psychology ⮚ Established the first institute for research in experimental psychology at the University of Leipzig, Germany ⮚ To examine consciousness, Wundt employed the method of INTROSPECTION (self-report) whereby individuals were asked to systematically look inwards at their own inner experiences and examine their sensations, feelings, and thoughts ⮚ Edward Titchener one of the students of Wundt who popularized Structuralism and identified that there are three elements of the mind ▪ Sensation ▪ Images INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 3 | Page ▪ Feelings For example, our conscious experience of an apple include its color, smell, taste, visual image, and whether it feels like an apple to us. B. Functionalism by William James ⮚ Psychology is about the “functions of the mind”. ⮚ Concern: how our mental processes help us adapt to our environment. ⮚ Functionalists believed that what matters are not the constituents of the human mind, but rather how they help us to adapt and survive. ⮚ We choose those behaviors and mental processes that could help us adapt in the ever changing environment. ⮚ Book: Principles of Psychology o Topics include sensation, memory, reasoning, attention, feelings, emotions C. Gestalt Psychology by Max Wertheimer ⮚ Common belief: “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” ⮚ Perceptual experience can only be comprehended if all parts are viewed in integral manner. ⮚ Human consciousness experience cannot be broken down into basic elements, but is a meaningful whole. ⮚ For example in figure 1: There are 3 incomplete circles in the picture. Viewed individually, each image does not convey any particular shaped, yet when viewed as a whole, it is possible to see a triangle in the middle, even though it is illusory. Figure 1. In this figure, a triangle is seen even though it does not actually exist. D. Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud ⮚ Emphasis is on the Unconscious Drives ⮚ Central assumption: “human beings are born with unconscious drives that seek some kind of outlet or expression from the very start.” INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 4 | Page ⮚ Main focus is on the internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious mental processes. ⮚ The human mind is seen as having three structures namely the conscious (awareness), preconscious (retrievable memories), and unconscious (drives that seek some outlet. Most are not in tune with the standards of the society). Figure 2: Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. There is much more to know in the unconscious part of the mind. ⮚ Indirect manifestations of drives: ⮚ Sublimation –channeling negative urges and impulses into positive, socially-acceptable behavior ⮚ Dreams ⮚ Slips of the tongue ⮚ Techniques ⮚ Hypnosis ⮚ Free association (talk therapy) ⮚ Dream Analysis ⮚ Freud is famous of his couch therapy. He noted that his patients experienced Catharsis, cleansing or reduction of a feeling of the same, and led to a dramatic improvement in the patient’s physical symptoms after conducting his techniques. E. Behaviorism by John B. Watson and Burrhus Frederic Skinner ⮚ Focuses more on the overt and observable responses and behavior. ⮚ Psychology should be considered an objective, experimental science, whose goal should be the analysis of observable behaviors (overt) & prediction & control of those behaviors. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 5 | Page ⮚ B.F. Skinner further advocated the study of Psychology in the behavioristic approach by examining the effects of reinforcement and punishment on animals and humans ⮚ For example: Giving a star to a child who got an A+ grade in his science class (reinforcement). ⮚ The purpose of reinforcement is to continue the positive behavior of the individual whilst punishment changes and eventually extinguish any negative behaviors. F. Humanism by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow ⮚ Focuses on subjective human experiences, self-realization, potentials, and ideals. ⮚ Put forward the concept of free will, arguing that humans are able and capable of making their own free choices ⮚ Humanism sees individuals as capable of growing and becoming who they wanted to be. ⮚ With the unconditional positive regard of our primary caregivers (parents) we developed our self-concept. ⮚ Maslow believed that humans has a natural tendency toward self-actualization o An innate tendency toward growth that motivates all human behavior & results in the full realization of a person’s higher potential. ⮚ Rogers promoted the idea of optimal development, and described as ‘the good life,’ whereby the individual continually aims at fulfilling his fullest potential Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology ⮚ The Psychoanalytic and Behaviorist Perspectives o Central areas of attention in contemporary Psychoanalysis: Unconscious mind and early childhood experiences o Central figure shaping contemporary behaviorism: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) o Stressed the role of consequences in controlling behavior. o Law of Effect –behaviours are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely to be repeated if they lead to unsatisfying consequences. ⮚ The Cognitive Perspective o An approach that attempts to understand behavior by studying how the mind organizes perceptions, process information, and interprets experiences. o Cognitivists believed that human behaviors are controlled by one’s mental processes in response to external environmental forces. o The goal of cognitive perspective is to change irrational thoughts to rational ones. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 6 | Page ⮚ The Evolutionary Perspective o David Buss argues that just as evolution shapes our physical features, it also pervasively influences how we make decisions, how aggressive we are, our fears, and our mating patterns. o Traits and characteristics are being passed on. o Natural selection as Basis of Behavior ⮚ The Sociocultural Perspective o Studies how behavior is shaped by social and cultural forces. o Culture- is the total lifestyle of people from a particular social grouping, including all the ideas, symbols, preferences, and material objects that they share. o One’s cultures becomes a part of his personality. Research & Methods in Psychology ⮚ Remember that Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. In order to understand and explain human behavior, psychologists use standardized scientific procedures to collect data. The Scientific Method Step 1: Reviewing the Literature of Existing Theories. -scientific theory- a system of interrelated, accumulated research findings used to explain a set of observations & generate testable hypotheses. Step 2: Formulate a Testable Hypothesis -hypothesis- a statement of a predicted relationship between two or more variables. Step 3: Design the study and collect the data. -data-refers to the measurements of behavior Step 4: Analyze the data & accept or reject the hypothesis Step 5: Publish, Replicate, & Seek Scientific Review Step 6: Theory Building- the Cycle Continues. Psychological Research ⮚ Research is the systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation of problem in order to understand existed knowledge, validate existing knowledge, and or generate new knowledge (Krishnakumar, 2011). Methods Archival Research-census data, birth certificates or newspaper clippings INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 7 | Page Naturalistic Observation-investigator simply observe some naturally occurring behavior and does not intervene in the situation. Survey Research- uses questionnaires or interviews to collect data Mail survey Telephone survey Case study- an in-depth investigation of an individual or small group of people by asking questions usually using interviews. For example, conducting an in-depth study on the lives of criminal offenders in prison. Correlational research- relationship between two sets of factors are examined whether they are associated or “correlated.” For example, studying the relationship between learning styles and academic performance of first year college students. Experimental Research- cause-and-effect relationship. In an experiment, scientists manipulate one or more factors and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior. Independent variable –a factor which the researcher controls or manipulates in order to determine their effect on behavior. Dependent variable –measures of behavior that are used to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variable. For example, studying the effect of alcohol intake to comprehension of students. In this example, the independent variable is alcohol intake because it is used or manipulated to change the behavior of the respondents whilst the comprehension is the dependent variable since it is the behavior that is expected to change. Careers in Psychology ⮚ Psychometrician ⮚ Someone who administers psychological tests and scores them. He works under a licensed psychologist and he is not allowed to interpret test results or give clinical assessments. ⮚ Human Resource Personnel ⮚ Assists human resource manager in implementing policies and strategies throughout the company or organization. He/She helps screen and recruit the best applicants. ⮚ Experimental Psychologist ⮚ Conducts pilot study using statistics on a chosen field or subject before pushing through with a major study. ⮚ Forensic Psychologist ⮚ Works in between psychology and the criminal justice system. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 8 | Page ⮚ Can serve as an expert witness and is duly assigned to evaluate if the defendant is competent in standing trial. ⮚ Sports Psychologist ⮚ Concerned on the effects of physical activity to the psychological health and performance of athletes. ⮚ Can also work as consultants for sports team. ⮚ Provides counseling to athletes who undergo career transitions. ⮚ Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist ⮚ Involves studying behavior in the workplace. ⮚ Geared towards the improvement of each employee’s productivity and motivation. ⮚ Develop trainings and assess employees to further enhance the company’s workforce. ⮚ School Counselor ⮚ Concerned on the overall mental welfare of the school’s employee and students. ⮚ Educational Psychologist ⮚ Develop learning materials and understand the aspects of human learning. ⮚ They could also enhance one’s reading skills through a developed or new technique. ⮚ Most focus on gifted children and those with disabilities. ⮚ Health Psychologist ⮚ contribute to the promotion and maintenance of good health through research or practice ⮚ Rehabilitation Psychologist ⮚ focus on people who are physically or cognitively disabled. ⮚ Psychiatrist ⮚ After completing medical school, a doctor of psychiatry specializes in the treatment of severely disturbed patients. ⮚ Clinical Psychologist ⮚ Work with a range of individuals from infants to elderly ⮚ The work of a clinical psychologist can involve individual themselves, families/partners, school personnel, other health care workers, and communities. ⮚ Often work in large settings such as universities, hospitals, private practice offices, or group of medical practices. Summary Psychology is the study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychology can be traced back in the works of Wundt, James, Wertheimer, Freud, Rogers, Maslow, Watson, Skinner, and other known theorists who have formulated their own definition and understanding of Psychology. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology 9 | Page Psychology uses standardized procedure in order to understand human behavior and research is part of the work of psychology students and professionals. There are six common psychological research methods used in Psychology namely: Archival Research, Natural Observation, Correlational Research, Survey, Experimental Research and Case Study. The field of Psychology is vast and graduates can choose any psychological fields relevant to their interests and needs. INPSYC130 Introduction to Psychology