Indian Knowledge System Unit 1 PDF

INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM UNIT - 1 IMPORTANCE OF ANCIENT INDIAN KNOWLEDGE – Indian Knowledge System has a rich and diverse history that spans thousands of years. The importance of Indian Knowledge System lies in its profound impact on various aspects of human life, including philosophy, science, medic...

INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM UNIT - 1 IMPORTANCE OF ANCIENT INDIAN KNOWLEDGE – Indian Knowledge System has a rich and diverse history that spans thousands of years. The importance of Indian Knowledge System lies in its profound impact on various aspects of human life, including philosophy, science, medicine, mathematics, literature and more. India is a country with a long-surviving civilizational history and practices, known to human being. Western scholars date the civilisation to at least 5000-8000 years, while the traditional sources and belief systems in India date the civilisation to a much older period, almost time immemorial. India having such a long history, ought to have accumulated some knowledge over its long period of existence. There is an impression in contemporary society that all knowledge that we benefit from has originated from the West. Since, western civilisation is of relatively recent origin, compared to Indian or other civilisations such as the Chinese and the Egyptians, this also implies that all knowledge is of recent origin. This idea looks counterintuitive and does not make much logical sense. Human beings naturally create knowledge because they have special abilities. They use their thinking and reasoning skills to understand and make sense of new Information as they learn. Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a rich repository of knowledge accumulated from an 'Indian perspective' (भारतीय दृष्टी) and manifested in terms of traditions and practices. As many of us are aware, the traditional knowledge in India was preserved and transmitted to the next generation through 'Maukhik Parampara' (मौखिक परं परा Oral Tradition) until a few centuries ago. There was an uninterrupted lineage of 'Acharya- Shishya Parampara' (आचायय-शिष्य परं परा), that took the responsibility for the preservation and transmission of knowledge down the generations. This relationship between the teacher-student was much more significant than a relationship between father and son. Such Acharyas and Shishyas have their own family structure, called as 'Gurukul' (गुरुकुल). These people formed a clan, who preserved the knowledge, practiced it by making a living and transmitted it to the next generation. Later, scholars from these traditional lineages used palm leaf scripts and print media to write down and store important information that was passed on through educational system of oral tradition. Oral tradition involves the transmission of dom cultural norms and practical know-how through verbal storytelling, cussions and other forms of spoken communication. These oral traditions played a crucial role in preserving cultural, philosophical and practical wisdom, fostering a sense of community and continuity in Indian society. Importance of Preservation, Protection and Transmission of Traditional Knowledge:The preservation, protection and transmission of traditional knowledge are essential for the well-being of societies. It not only enriches the cultural tapestry but also provides valuable resources for addressing present and future challenges. Traditional knowledge serves multiple roles for society as stated below: Cultural Heritage: Traditional knowledge is often a reflection of a society's cultural identity. It includes unique practices, customs, beliefs and values that have been developed over generations. Preserving this knowledge helps maintain and celebrate cultural diversity. Wisdom and Experience: Traditional knowledge embodies the wisdom and experiences of past generations. It often contains practical solutions to various challenges, be it in agriculture, medicine or sustainable living. Passing it on ensures that, valuable insights are preserved for generations. Community Bonding: Traditional knowledge is often shared within communities, fostering a sense of belonging and unity. It strengthens social ties and promotes a collective identity, contributing to social cohesion. Sustainable Practices: Many traditional practices are inherently sustainable and environmentally friendly. Preserving and passing on this knowledge can contribute to sustainable living practice, which is increasingly important in the face of environmental challenges. Cultural Continuity: Transmitting traditional knowledge ensures the continuity of cultural practices and rituals. It allows future generations to connect with their roots and understand the historical context of their culture. Innovation and Adaptation: Traditional knowledge can be a source of inspiration for innovation. By understanding the principles behind traditional practices, societies can adapt and apply them to contemporary challenges, fostering a dynamic interplay between tradition and modernity. Preservation of Languages: Traditional knowledge is often transmitted in local languages. Preserving and passing on this knowledge contributes to the preservation of linguistic diversity and prevents the loss of indigenous languages. Resilience: Traditional knowledge often contains methods for coping with adversity and building resilience. Sharing these strategies can help communities better navigate challenges and uncertainties. Indian Knowledge System in NEP2020: National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims to reform the education system across various levels. It emphasizes the importance of reviving and promoting India's rich knowledge systems. The policy encourages the integration of traditional Indian knowledge with modern education, fostering a curriculum that combines the best of both worlds to provide a well- rounded education. Incorporating subject Indian Knowledge System in current education system through NEP2020 helps to recognize and revive these indigenous knowledge systems to restore the cultural heritage that was disrupted during the colonial era. The knowledge is available in both formal literary sources and informal non- literary sources – Basically, in the literary content, we find three categories, 1) IKS literature in Vedic Corpus which mainly includes Vedic literature with Chaturdasha Vidyasthan' (चतुर्यि शिद्यास्थान). 2) IKS literature other than Vedic corpus including literature of Buddhism, Jainism and many other knowledge traditions. 3) IKS literature based on the regional knowledge repositories including literature available on the various Indian languages, dialects etc. The non-written source of IKS mainly comes from the rich oral traditions and practices found across the country. IKS Literature in Vedic Corpus: Chaturdasha Vidyasthan' (चतुर्दश विद्यास्थान) The concept of the "14 Vidya represents a systematic classification of knowledge in traditional Indian education. Each Vidya represents a specific branch of study and together, they form a comprehensive framework for holistic learning. The components of the 14-part knowledge contain the four Vedas (and their Upa- Vedas), the six Vedangas, Puranas, the Dharma-sastras, Nyay in its detailed form and Mimamsa.  A) Vedas (िेर्) – The Vedas are the original source of knowledge in the Vedic tradition. They heard by ancient seers and were passed down orally from Acharya to shishya generations. 1. Rigved (ऋग्वेर्): Study of the Rigveda contains numerous secrets and clarifications about the origin of the world, the importance of the God and lot of advice for living a satisfying and successful life. 2. Yajurved (यजुिेर्): Study of the Yajurveda deals with Rituals of the Yagna. It is a collection of Sanskrit verses and mantras used in Hindu rituals and worship. 3. Samved (सामिेर्): Study of the Samaveda is collection of chants and melodies during rituals ceremonies, to awaken seven chakras in human body. Teaches importance of vratas, tapa, self-control, cleanliness and salvation. 4. Atharvaved (अथियिेर्): Study of the Atharvaveda deals with many fields of knowledge including geography, astronomy, herbs, ayurveda, formulas for magic, rituals for upanayana, marriage and funerals. B) Shad-Vedang (पड़-िेर्ाङ्ग) – These texts help you understand exactly the proper meaning of Vedas and mentions the skills to protect through the proper ways. 1)Shiksha (হ িায়িা): Science of phonetics and pronunciation. 2)Vyakaran (व्याकरण): Grammar and linguistic analysis. 3)Nirukta (शनरुक्त): Etymology and interpretation of difficult words. 4)Chhandashastra (छं र्ः िाि): Study of poetic meters. 5)Jyotisha (ज्योशतष): Astrology and Astronomy. 6)Kalpa (कल्प): Rituals and ceremonies. C) Puran (पुराण) and Dharmashastra (धर्दशास्त्र) – The Puranas are traditional texts include knowledge content based on Vedic thinking. They also talk about many social and cultural ideas and how to live according to them. Dharmashastra is a guide to lead a life based on the principles of the righteousness. D) Darshan (र्शदन) – Philosophy basically means a philosophical idea or viewpoint. 1) Mimansa (मीमां सा): Philosophical inquiry into duty. 2) Nyay (न्याय): Logic and reasoning. These 14 branches of knowledge cover a diverse range of subjects, Including traditional texts, language, rituals, philosophy, logic and the natural sciences. They reflect er the interdisciplinary nature of Vedic tradition of education in India, emphasizing a holistic understanding of various aspects of life and knowledge. Other writings in the Vedic collection talk about everyday topics like health, science, technology, and art. These works helped society progress. Even though they covered many topics, they still respected the Vedas as the main source of truth. IKS Literature other than Vedic Corpus: IKS Iiterature other than Vedic corpus includes other traditions that are not Included in the Vedic Corpus but have immensely contributed to IKS in the field of psychology, philosophy and other domains. Two litteratures, the Buddhist and the Jain are noteworthy. 1) BUDDHIST LITERATURE: Buddhist Literature and philosophy has significantly contributed to the Indian Knowledge System, particularly in the realms of philosophy, psychology, ethics and metaphysics. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as 'Bhagwan Gautam Buddha." Here are the key aspects of the Indian knowledge system influenced by this literature. BUDDHIST Philosophy: Madhyamak (र्ाध्यर्क-Middle Way): The Middle Way is a fundamental concept in Buddhist Literature, advocating moderation and avoidance of extremes. It has implications not only in ethics but also in the understanding of reality and the nature of existence. Pratityasamutpad (प्रतीत्यसर्ुत्पार्-Dependent Origination): This principle elucidates the interconnectedness of all phenomena, asserting that everything arises in dependence on other things. It has implications for causality and the nature of suffering. Anichha (अवनच्छा-Impermanence) and Dukha (र्ु ुः ख-Suffering): Buddhism emphasizes the impermanent and unsatisfactory nature of all phenomena, encouraging followers to understand and transcend suffering through ethical conduct and mental discipline. Psychology and Meditation: Mindfulness: Buddhism places significant importance on mindfulness, the cultivation of non-judgmental awareness in the present moment. This practice is central to Buddhist meditation and has gained widespread recognition in contemporary psychology. Vipashyana Meditation: Buddhist Literature has developed various meditation techniques, with Vipashyana being one of the most well-known. It involves observing bodily sensations to develop insight into the nature of reality. ETHICS - Five Precepts: The Five Precepts form the ethical foundation for Buddhist conduct, including abstaining from killing, stealing, lying, sextual misconduct and Intoxicants. These precepts guide moral behaviour and the pursuit of a virtuous life. Metaphysics and Ontology: Anatma (Doctrine of No-Self): Buddhist Literature rejects the concept of a permanent, unchanging self Instead, if posts the fee of no-self (अनाग), asserting individual identity as a fluid and ever changing process Shunyata (शून्यता-Emptiness): Particularly emphasized in Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of emptiness denotes the lack of inherent existence in all phenomena. It challenges fixed notions and encourages a more profound understanding of reality. EDUCATION AND TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE : Monastic Education: Buddhist monastic institutions have played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting knowledge. Monastic education includes the study of Buddhist scriptures, philosophy and various academic disciplines. Sutta (सुत्त-Dharma Talks): Bhagwan Buddha's discourses, known as Suttas, form a significant part of the Buddhist canon. They cover a wide range of topics, including ethics, philosophy and practical guidance for leading a wholesome life. 2) JAIN LITERATURE: Jain Literature and philosophy, one of the famous traditions of India, has a unique and rich knowledge system that encompasses philosophical, ethical and practical aspects of life. The Jain Literature is deeply rooted in the teachings of 'Tirthankar' (तीथयकर spiritual teachers or enlightened beings) and is codified in Jain scriptures. Here are some key elements of the Indian knowledge system within Jainism. Jain Agamas: The primary scriptures of Jain Literature are called 'Agamas'. These ten contain the teachings attributed to Bhagawan Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara The Agamas cover various aspects of philosophy, ethics, cosmology and rituals, forming the foundation of Jain knowledge. Jain Philosophy: Jain philosophy is characterized by its emphasis on 'Ahimsa' (अश ं सा- non- violence), 'Satya' (सत्य-truthfulness), 'Astey' (अस्तेय-non-stealing), 'Brahmacharya' (ब्रह्मचषय-celibacy) and 'Aparigrah' (अपररग्र -non-possession) These principles, known as or 'Mahavrat' (म ाव्रत-the Five Vows), guide ethical conduct. Theory of Karma: Jain Literature has a detailed theory of karma that explains the accumulation of karmic particles through one's thoughts, words and actions. Liberation from the cycle of birth and death, 'Moksha' (मोक्ष) is achieved by purifying and shedding accumulated karma. Cosmology: Jain cosmology describes the structure of the universe, including various realms of existence, celestial beings and the cycle of birth and rebirth. The universe is divided into three parts: the upper, middle and lower worlds. Keval Gyan (केिल ज्ञान): is supreme knowledge or omniscience, which according to Jainism, is achieved by Tirthankaras. Tirthankaras attain a state of perfect knowledge, perception, power and bliss and they guide others on the path of spiritual liberation. Anekantvad (अनेकान्तिार्): Anekantvad (अनेकान्तिार्) is the doctrine of non- absolutism or manifold viewpoints. It emphasizes the understanding that truth can be perceived from multiple perspectives and no single viewpoint can capture the entirety of reality. Ahimsa and Vegetarianism : Jain philosophy places a strong emphasis on non-violence, extending to all living beings. Jains follow a vegetarian diet and practice carefulness to avoid harming any form of life. Ascetic Practices: Jain monks and nuns undertake ascetic practices, including vows of celibacy, non-possession and minimalism. These practices aim to purify the soul and reduce the accumulation of karma. Ethics and Conduct: Jain scriptures provide guidelines for ethical conduct in various aspects of life, including social, personal and business ethics. Jain Teachings: Apart from the Agamas, Jain literature includes commentaries, biographies of Tirthankaras and philosophical treatises that further elaborate on Jain teachings and practices. The Jain Literature and philosophy, like any other Indian philosophical traditions, seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of existence, morality and the path to spiritual liberation. It integrates philosophy, ethics and practical guidelines for leading a life in accordance with Jain principles. Buddhist literature has dealt with the religious concepts in its canonical texts. However, there are several Buddhist works in which many issues such as mathematical concepts, maritime activities and alchemy are also discussed. The work of Nagarjuna, 'Rasaratnakara' in the 1" century CE is an early contribution to alchemy. The Jain sacred literature consists of canonical texts. They considered mathematics as an integral part and have dedicated 'Ganitanuyoga,' a portion of their literature, to mathematics. 'Tattvartha- sutra, composed by Umasvati during 2nd 3rd century CE is an important Jain literature. Some popular Jain texts dealing with mathematics include Anuyogadvara-sutra, Vyavahara-sutra and Surya- prajnapti. Mahaviracharya's work, 'Ganita-sara-samgraha (850 CE) is one of the important contributions to the development of mathematics in India. Some Texts from Buddhist Literature: Dhammapada (धम्मपर्): The 'Dhammapada' is a collection of verses attributed to the Bhagwan Gautam Buddha. It addresses various aspects of human experience, morality and the pats to enlightenment. The verses touch upon topics such as virtue, wisdom and the consequences of actions. Vinay Pitak (विनयवपटक): The 'Vinay Pitak' is one of the three 'baskets' of the Pali Canon, the earlies collection of Buddhist scriptures. It contains rules and guidelines for the monastic community (Sangha), providing insights into the organization and functioning of Buddhist monastic life. Sutta Pitak (सुत्तवपटक): The 'Sutta Pitak,' another basket of the Pali Canon, consists of discourses attributed to the Buddha. Many of these discourses delve into aspects of ethics, social harmony and the nature of existence. Abhidhamma Pitak (अविधम्मवपटक): The 'Abhidhamma Pitak' is the third basket of the Pali Canon, focusing on systematic and analytical presentations of Buddhist teachings. While more metaphysical, it provides insights into the workings of the mind and mental phenomena. Milindapanha (वर्वलिंर्पन्हा): The 'Milindapanha' is a dialogue between King Milinda (Menander I) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena. It covers a wide range of topics, including ethics, philosophy and psychology. The text addresses questions related to the self, morality and the nature of existence Jatak Tales (जातक कथा): The 'Jatak Tales,' stories about the previous lives of the Bhagavan Buddha, often convey moral and ethical lessons. They touch upon social issues, compassion and the consequences of actions. SOME TEXT FROM JAIN LITERATURE – Jain Agam (जैन आगर्: The Jain Agamas are the canonical scriptures of Jainism. They include various texts that cover the entire range of Jain philosophy, ethics and practices. Some of the important Agamas include. the अंग, उपां ग, पड़ना, छे र्सूत्र and मूलसूत्र. Acharanga Sutra (आचारािंगसूत्र): The 'Acharanga Sutra' is one of the oldest and most authoritative texts in Jainism. It deals with ethics, morality and conduct. It provides guidelines for leading a righteous life, emphasizing non-violence, truthfulness and the importance of ascetic practices. Sutrakritanga (सूत्रकृताङ्ग): The 'Sutrakritanga' is another important text that addresses various aspects of Jain philosophy, including metaphysics and ethics. It covers topics related to the nature of the soul, the principles of karma and the conduct of ascetics. Bhagavati Sutra (िगिती सूत्र): The 'Bhagavati Sutra' is one of the main canonical texts in the Digambara Jain tradition. It contains narratives and teachings attributed to Bhagavan Mahavira. The text covers a wide range of topics, including cosmology, ethics and the conduct of lay followers. Jain Tattva Vidya (जैन तत्व विद्या): 'Jain Tattva Vidya' is a branch of knowledge within Jainism that explores the fundamental principles of the Jain faith. It delves into metaphysical and epistemological aspects, contributing to the understanding of reality. consciousness and knowledge. Nandi Sutra (नन्दीसूत्र): The 'Nandi Sutra' is a Jain text that deals with the philosophy of conduct. It discusses the rules and conduct to be observed by monks, nuns and lay followers. This text provides insights into social ethics and moral principles. Anuyogadvar Sutra (अनुयोगद्वारसूत्र): The 'Anuyogadvar Sutra' is an important text that discusses the proper conduct of monks. It covers various aspects of ethical behaviour and provides guidelines for maintaining harmony within the monastic community. Nandi sutra discusses the five types of knowledge, particularly the two 'indirect' kinds. The Anuyogadvar sutra is a technical treatise on analytical methods, a kind of guide to applying knowledge. These twin texts underscore the central status of the Jain concept of 'Anekantavad' (अनेकान्तिार्). RAMAYANA – Ramayana consists of seven books which are called as Kändas, organized into 645 sargas (chapters), and 23,672 verses Ramayana is a vast history of Rama but also consists of many other related instances, In India, we have more than 40 versions of Ramayana in different languages. Ramayana takes a 'normative' approach while Mahabharata takes a 'descriptive' approach to present events and decisions Indian drama, dance, and other performing arts have been greatly influenced by the two epics. he Välmiki-Ramayana is translated into many languages. There are reportedly around three hundred versiom of Ramayana. According to Ramayana, Rama is not merely a human being but an embodiment and a living entity of the concept of Dharma. Through several characters, Ramayana provides a rich opportunity to understand important aspects of peaceful co-existance and successful living. BALA-KANDA – It deals with the birth and childhood of Rama and his brothers. Viśvāmitra takes along with him Rāma and Lakşmana through the forest and eventually to Mithila leading to the marriage of Sită to Rama. The key messages is the importance of knowing the reality of life in the country by the king-to-be. This reminds us that in organisations, great leadership requires a good knowledge of the issues and realities facing the organisation. This is obtained only when the leader can connect to the people and situations in the organisation physically and mentally. AYODHYAKANDA – It describes the fast turn of events in which an attempt to coronate Räma as the next heir apparent to the throne by Daśaratha was aborted and instead Räma was sent to the forest for 14 years. This part of the epic provides an important message to the young that life can be a roller coaster ride. There is a need to understand that events in everyone's life can turn adversarial at any time. Räma demonstrates that to be successful in life one needs to develop mental equanimity to handle such unforeseen events in one’s life. ARANYAKANDA – It marks the large-scale elimination of raksasas in the forest in response to the request from the sages and seers, who were constantly harassed by these people. It also portrays the forceful and deceitful kidnapping of Sita by Ravana. The epic reminds us that goodness needs to be protected from evil forces, lest it becomes unsustainable. It reminds us of the fact that an evil action by an individual will eventually trigger a bigger reaction from the system and in the process of eliminating the evil, several good aspects may also get destroyed. KISHKINDHA- KANDA – It describes the efforts on the part of Rama and Lakşmaņa to find Sita, who was abducted by Ravana. The meeting of Sugriva through the good offices of Hanuman instilled a ray of hope in their search. The epic brings out the Importance of friendship, especially during periods of great distress. It also reminds us of the importance of wise counselling to wade through the challenges that we face in our life. SUNDER KANDA – It describes the heroic efforts of Hanuman to cross the ocean to locate Sita and repose confidence in her. The epic beautifully demonstrates the strength of the character of Sita, with which she discovered unlimited courage within and faced the adversity with grace and purpose, which can inspire the womenfolk. Other messages include statecraft, dealing with ambassadors, and the presence of mind and tact required for assessing the strength of opponent. YUDDHA KANDA – It describes the royal battle that erupted between Sugriva's army and Ravana's army, eventually culminating in large-scale elimination of raksasas and their king Ravana. Kumbhakarna while advising Ravana says, "One who takes the timely advice concerning Dharma, Artha and Käma, about the pros and cons of the deeds from his scholarly councilors never gets into trouble.” Ravana was very powerful but he flouted the advice given by his great councilors and well-wishers like Vibhisana, Märica, Mälyavän, Mandodari, and Kumbhakarņa. This led to his downfall and death. The epic forcefully brings out the benefits of wise counseling and the dangers of hasty decisions arising out of an Inebriated mind polluted with attachment to unreasonable and unethical desires. UTTARA-KANDA – It describes the birth of Lava and Kuša and the departure of Rama and Sitä from this world. The epic throughout depicts Räma and Ravana in equal measure when it comes to ‘greatness’ but unfortunatetly, in terms of ‘goodness’ Ravana was no match to Rama. The epic encourages one to contemplate the difference between goodness and greatness and the need to have both to succeed in life. The Vilmiki Ramayana beautifully depicts the dharma of personal life, family life and social order. The human characters in Rama, Laksmana, Bharata, Kausalya, and sita bring out the principles of ideal living. It emphasises the ideal relationships between father and son, between brothers and between husband and wife. The concept of dharma as the way to a meaningful life could be a powerful theme for positive mental health. Many conflicts in life can be resolved using this perspective. These anecdotes, the conflicts, and the situations are the real nuggets of wisdom for the people. MAHABHARATA – Mahabharata is one of the greatest poems in the world composed by Krsna-Dvaipayana (VedaVyasa). According to the available information, the original and first version of Mahabharata which was named Jaya consisted of only about 8,000 verses and then the second version had 24,000 verses which was named Bharata It was later extended to up to 1,00,000 verses and was named Mahabharata. Mahābhārata presents the reality of life and allows the reader to pick up their lessons for living. Nītis are the guidance to take a person to the path of Dharma by providing the right perspectives about life and life goals. the story focuses on the dispute between two - families, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The story unfolds steadily in the text but is interspersed throughout with a variety of topics including law, philosophy, religion, custom and to some extent, geography and cosmography combined with several episodes and legends adding to the richness of the message. Birth, Childhood, and Rivalry - The first two hooks (Adi Parva Salih Parva) of Mahabharata describe in detail the ancestral details of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, their birth, the early childhood and the growing rivalry between the cousins of the two families. The growth both in terms of the popularity of Yudhisthira and his brothers, their material richness, and the respect that they commanded was seeding jealousy in Duryodhana and his brothers and it reached a flashpoint in winning a dubious game of dice and ill-treating Draupadi. Ironically, several elders, well-wishers, and wise people were party to this treacherous act, directly or otherwise. Banishing of Pandavas - The nest two books (Aranyaka-parva, Virita-parva) of Mahabharata vividly describe a variety of events that unfolded when the Pandavas were asked to go to the forest as a compromise to restore their kingdom if they successfully complete the tenure. The posibility of unfair treatment on their return ought to have loomed large in their minds, hand on their past experience of dealing with the Kaurawas. Therefore, Pandavas make use of this time to gather enough strength and support and blessings to the Gods to face any eventual war. Failed peace parleys leading to war - The next seven books starting from Udyoga- parva describe the failed efforts from both the Pandava side and the Kaurava side to avert the war. It is followed by the description of the great war that erupted which resulted in total decimation of the Kaurava side, killing of Duryodhana and all his Kaurava brothers and several prominent people on both sides of the army and ends with the lamentations of the widows and the ladies. Post-war conversation between Yudhisthira and Bhişma -The next two books (Santi-parva and Anušāsana-parva) deals with the detailed conversation between Yudhisthira, who is going to be coronated as the king and Bhīşma, who was waiting to give up his mortal body. This section has a wealth of information on several aspects of life, public policy and administration, spiritual and materialistic aspects of life, dharma, and the other puruşărthas. The exit of the characters - In the last five books starting from Āśvamedhika-parva, the epic discusses the role of Yudhisthira as a king. This is followed by the exit of all the remaining main characters, including Pandavas, Draupadi, Krşņa, Dhṛtarāştra, and his cohort Gandhäri, and Kunti.