AP European History Unit 1-5 PDF

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration Philosophy During the Renaissance - The Italian Renaissance was the rebirth of interest in classical antiquity (Greco-Roman) that impacted education, culture, and art. Capitalism (not yet free-market) and modern banking techniques began to develop during this time...

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration Philosophy During the Renaissance - The Italian Renaissance was the rebirth of interest in classical antiquity (Greco-Roman) that impacted education, culture, and art. Capitalism (not yet free-market) and modern banking techniques began to develop during this time, catapulting the city-state of Florence to cultural and economic prominence. - Francesco Petrarch was the father of humanism, the main intellectual component of the Renaissance. Humanists believed that human nature and achievements, evident in the classics, were worthy of admiration and contemplation. Humanists believed in liberal arts educational curriculum that focused on the study of classical history, philosophy, and literature, with the goal of producing individuals fit for civic leadership positions. - The humanist revival of Greek and Roman texts, spread by the printing press, challenged the institutional power of universities and the Catholic Church. This shifted education away from a primary focus on theological writings toward classical texts and new methods of scientific inquiry. - A facet of humanism was civic humanism, which encouraged scholars to read ancient Greco-Roman documents that educated them on how to become a better citizen. These documents encouraged democracy. - Humanism also stressed individualism, the optimism and self-confidence in one’s own achievements and pursuit of knowledge. - The development of the printing press resulted in the mass production of classical texts, weakening the Catholic Church’s control over information and promoting secularism. This resulted in the Church having less control over intellectual life. - Pico della Mirandola’s Oration on the Dignity of Man (1496) asserted that humans were at the center of divine creation because of their unique gift of free will. His Oration was in line with Renaissance humanism and was the first printed book ever banned by the Catholic Church. Art and Literature During the Renaissance - As opposed to the mainly-religious art of previous centuries, the Renaissance leaned toward naturalism. - patronage: Wealthy and influential Italians, such as the Medici family, used their wealth to support the art. Commissioned art was used to glorify these families and their cities. The papacy’s extensive patronage of the arts rebuilt the Vatican’s prestige after years of decline after the Avignon Schism, a period in which bishops in both Rome and Avignon claimed to be the true pope. - The School of Athens, Raphael’s fresco of famous ancient philosophers, included famous philosophers Plato (philosopher-led republic) and Aristotle (science and reasoning). This painting was a reflection of the Renaissance’s inspiration taken from Greek and Roman philosophers. 1 - Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince, which encouraged leaders to learn from the shrewd and ruthless tactics of Roman emperors. He believed that leaders should neither be loved, nor hated, but feared. - Baldassare Castiglione wrote The Courtier, which became a manual of proper behavior for upper-class men and women. It also influenced the separate spheres model of gender inequality. The Northern Renaissance - The Northern Renaissance retained a more religious focus, which resulted in more human-centered naturalism that considered individuals and everyday life appropriate objects of artistic representation. - Pieter Bruegel’s Northern Renaissance piece The Harvesters depicts both men and women working in the fields. - Christian humanism, embodied in the writings of Desiderius Erasmus, employed Renaissance learning in the service of religious reform. Erasmus “laid the egg that Luther hatched,” rejecting both the notion of predestination and the absolute power of the Catholic church. The Spanish Inquisition - Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille, the king and queen of Spain in 1480, were “new monarchs,” meaning that they limited the power of the nobility and the clergy in order to centralize their power. They agreed to make Catholicism the national religion of Spain in return for the Pope’s allowance of them to appoint every church official in their country. - Anti-Semitism had already become worse in Europe after the Black Death, and Ferdinand and Isabella chose to target Jews in order to centralize their power. In the Spanish Inquisition, they ordered Spain’s Jewish population to either convert to Catholicism (and become “conversos”) or leave the country. Under suspicion that many conversos had not truly become Catholic, the monarchs eventually forced as much of the Jewish (and Muslim) population as they could to leave entirely. The Columbian Exchange and the Slave Trade - In the 1492 Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal made an agreement through the Catholic Church over who can claim which areas in the New World. Spain had the right to the (at the time undiscovered by Europeans) areas west of the imaginary line, and Portugal had the lands to the east. During this time, Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator funded and encouraged exploration. He sponsored numerous West African expeditions. In West Africa, Portuguese traders in pursuit of riches partnered with local guides and merchants to connect the European and African economies. - The Spanish Empire, in contrast, focused on colonization. The Spanish crown (Ferdinand and Isabella) wanted to control the natives who lived in “discovered” lands and extract wealth from them. Christopher Columbus pioneered the Spanish domination of South America; Spain conquered the rather advanced Aztec and Inca empires due to the more advanced European 2 weaponry. However, the largest factor contributing to European success was the Columbian Exchange. - The Columbian Exchange brought the deadly European disease of smallpox to the Americas. It decimated hundreds of thousands of indigenous Americans and greatly contributed to the success of Spanish colonization. However, because of smallpox’s effectiveness, colonizers from Europe switched from enslaving natives to importing slaves from Africa to work on their plantations in the West Indies. This brought about the Atlantic slave trade, in which enslaved peoples were bought in Africa and sent to American plantations, in which the fruits of their labor was sent to Europe. Unit 2: Age of Reformation The Protestant Reformation - 16th-century Europeans increasingly began to criticize the Catholic Church after the Renaissance and the invention of the printing press in 1450. They were angered by the corruption within the Church, including simony, nepotism, pluralism/absenteeism, and the selling of indulgences. - Protestant leaders Martin Luther and John Calvin called for separation from the Catholic Church, bringing about the Protestant Reformation. - Martin Luther, the most famous figure of the Protestant Reformation and founder of Lutheranism and Protestantism, believed that salvation is initiated by God (not the Church), authority is rested in the Bible alone, and that the Church should not be a hierarchical clerical institution. Swiss reformer Ulrich Zwingli had reform ideas very similar to Luther’s. - John Calvin was a believer in predestination, the concept that men cannot actively work to achieve salvation; God already decided who would be saved and who would be damned. - The decentralized states of the Holy Roman Empire allowed for reform movements to gain traction, however, Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had ambitions for an entirely Catholic empire. After much conflict between Catholics and Protestants and the Augsburg Confession from the German Protestant princes, Charles V and the princes came to an agreement called the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. - Under the Peace of Augsburg, each territory in the Holy Roman Empire would be able to decide whether it was Catholic or Protestant. These Protestant ideas (specifically Lutheranism and Calvinism) brought about religious change in central, northern, and eastern Europe. Protestant ideas were appealing to peasants and city governments alike, and the development of Protestantism as well as English King Henry VIII’s formation of the Church of England caused more and more people to depart from Catholicism. 3 The Catholic Reformation - In an attempt to purify its image and take back supporters, the Catholic Church launched its Catholic Reformation (also known as the Counter-Reformation). The church drove for internal reform, removing corrupt policies and establishing new religious orders such as the Jesuits. - Pope Paul III’s mid-16th century Council of Trent addressed what reforms had to be made in the Church. The Council laid a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the Catholic Church and its faith, organization, and practice. - The mannerism (twisting proportions) and baroque (dark backgrounds; high contrast) styles of art were grand, emotional, and visually interesting Catholic propaganda used to reclaim Catholic support. - Even after both Reformations, religious violence between Catholics and Protestants continued to occur, especially in France. In France, a civil disconnect between the monarchy and civilians allowed for civil violence and war. Yet, despite their disagreements, both Catholics and Protestants saw pagans as agents of Satan, both ruthlessly trying and executing thousands of women accused of witchcraft. The War of the Three Henrys - The costs of the Habsburg-Valois wars (in which the Spanish Habsburgs won) forced the French to increase taxes and heavily borrow. So, the Concordat of Bologna had King Francis I agree to recognize the supremacy of the papacy over a universal council. In return, the French crown gained the right to appoint all French bishops, which allowed for economic growth for the French crown. - Strong religious fervor combined with a weak French monarchy led to civil violence between Catholic royalist lords and Calvinist anti-monarchical lords, all while ordinary men and women demonstrated iconoclasm by destroying religious images. - Henry of Guise plotted to assassinate the current French king Henry III and replace him, but he was killed himself before being able to act out his plot. - At the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572, thousands of Protestants were killed by Catholic mobs who thought they were doing God’s and the king’s will. This massacre took place at the Protestant Henry of Navarre’s wedding. Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot and next in line to the French throne, realized after being crowned Henry IV in 1589 that the only way to save France was to sacrifice religious principles for political necessity. He sacrificed his Protestantism in order to lead effectively, reigning as a politique. - Other politiques include the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England and the Catholic King Philip II of Spain. These two clashed in 1588, in which Elizabeth destroyed Spain’s Spanish Armada. The Thirty Years’ War Bohemian Phase (1618-1625) - Started with the defenestration of Prague in 1618, when Calvinist rebels threw Bohemian royal council members out of a window (though they survived). Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II 4 got the support of king Maximilian I of Bavaria to invade Bohemia. Ferdinand and Maximilian’s forces were led by Baron Tilly. They won against Frederick V, king of Bohemia, at the Battle of White Mountain. Danish Phase (1625-1629) - King Christian IV of Denmark supported the Protestants, but was defeated in 1626 when Albrecht von Wallenstein joined the fight on the Catholic side. As a result, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II occupied Holstein. The Treaty of Lubeck in 1629 restored Holstein to Christian. The Edict of Restitution gave the Holy Roman Empire back all of the German states that were secularized with the Peace of Augsburg. Swedish Phase (1630-1635) - France and Sweden signed an alliance, and France entered the war against the Habsburgs. The Swedes killed Baron Tilly, the HRE imperial commander, in 1632. At the Battle of Lutzen, the Swedes defeated Albrecht von Wallenstein, who had replaced Tilly. However, Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus died in warfare. Wallenstein was assassinated after being caught secretly working with Sweden and France. The emperor’s army defeated the Swedes at Nördlingen in southern Germany. - The Treaty of Prague was enacted in 1635 after the deaths of both Adolphus and Wallenstein. It strengthened Habsburgs and weakened the German Princes. French/International Phase (1635-1648) - Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of child-king Louis XIII, wanted to reclaim Alsace and weaken the power of Spain and its Habsburg king Philip IV. He sent large forces to Germany after succeeding against Spain, tipping the balance in the Protestant’s favor. - Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II died in 1637, and his son Ferdinand III succeeded him. Peace negotiations began in 1641, but little progress was made until Richelieu’s death in 1642 and the French occupation of Bavaria in 1646. Peace of Westphalia (1648) - The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years’ War. - France acquired Alsace, and both France and Sweden acquired nearby territory. - The Dutch Republic and Switzerland were given independence from Spain. The German princes were given independence from the HRE by the Habsburgs. - Renounced the Edict of Restitution (which had renounced the Peace of Augsburg) and expanded the Peace of Augsburg to include Calvinists in addition to Catholics and Lutherans. Once again the rulers of each state could determine its religion. 5 Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism Absolutism - Austria (Ferdinand II, III), Prussia (Frederick William I), and Russia (Peter the Great) strengthened their national unities and state authorities most notably by establishing a permanent government system and military roster. - Austria and Prussia both increased their monarchical powers by building large armies, increasing taxation, and suppressing representative institutions. Ferdinand II and III of the Austrian Habsburgs and Frederick William I of Prussia made deals with nobles to gain political authority. - In Russia, Peter the Great built up the state, expanded his territory, and Westernized Russia. French Absolutism Henry IV and the Fronde - Henry IV (past Henry of Navarre; r. 1589-1610) defused religious tensions and rebuilt France’s economy after inheriting a France wrecked from religious wars. He founded the Bourbon dynasty. - His Edict of Nantes (1589) allowed Huguenots (French Protestants) the right to worship in 150 traditionally Protestant towns throughout France. - Cardinal Richelieu became the first minister of France on behalf of Henry’s young son, Louis XIII. - Richelieu’s most important goal was to secure French pre-eminence in European power politics, doing everything he could to weaken the Habsburgs. - His policies were designed to strengthen royal control. He used intendants to do this. - The Fronde occurred in 1648-1653 as a result of the failure of Cardinal Jules Mazarin, first minister of Louis XIII’s son, Louis XIV, and wealthiest man in French history, to meet the costs of the Thirty Years’War. During these uprisings, the nobles of the robe (members of the Parlement of Paris) encouraged violent protests by commoners, since Mazarin was going to forgo their pay for 4 years. Louis XIV - Louis XIV, the “Sun King,” based his authority on the concept that kings were God’s rulers on Earth. He formed national policies on war, taxation, law, and religion and removed most of the nobles of the sword (traditional warrior families) from power. - His court of Versailles was the location of government where he made France’s noble families stay at all times to jockey for power and favors from the King. - Louis revoked king Henry IV’s Edict of Nantes with his own Edict of Fountainbleu in 1685, causing 200,000 Protestants to flee from France. - Jean-Baptiste Colbert was Louis’s controller general from 1665 to his death in 1683. He applied mercantilist policies to France. 6 - mercantilism: A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation’s international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. - A country always had to sell more goods abroad than it bought. Colbert didn’t want citizens buying foreign products; they must buy domestic when applicable. Every bit of usable land must be used to grow food. - Louis could pursue his goals without massive tax increases or creating a stream of new offices during Colbert’s tenure as controller general, however the warfare after Colbert’s death undid many of his economic achievements. - The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713) was caused by Louis XIV’s unwillingness to abide by a previous agreement that divided Spanish possessions between France and the Holy Roman Emperor upon the death of the heirless Spanish king Charles II. The Peace of Utrecht ended the war, allowing Louis’s Bourbon grandson Philip to remain king of Spain on the understanding that the French and Spanish crowns would never be united. - Rococo was a fantastical noble-oriented style of art displayed in salons and at the palace of Versailles. English Constitutionalism The English Civil War - Stuart Absolutism leads to the English Civil War (1642-1651). English citizens were debating taxing authority, state religion, and sovereignty. - James I believed in the divine right of kings and attempted to rule as an absolutist monarch. He wanted religious uniformity (everyone has to belong to the Church of England). In opposition to this were the Calvinist groups Puritans and Separatists. They wanted to “purify” and “separate from” the Catholic Church respectively. - Then Charles I attempted to make England even more absolutist; he tried to implement ship money, a tax without parliamentary approval. Parliament responded with the 1628 Petition of Right in response to Charles’s abuse of power. He accepted this, but went through a period of “personal rule” in which he did not call parliament for over a decade. Finally, in 1640, Charles called parliament, which initiated the English Civil War - In the English Civil War, the Cavaliers supported the king, while the Roundheads (which included Oliver Cromwell) supported Parliament. - Charles I was beheaded in 1649 and Oliver Cromwell established the Protectorate, a strict Puritanical military dictatorship. Cromwell expelled the Rump Parliament in 1648, leaving only his supporters behind. His government was tolerant of Protestants and de-Catholicized the Anglican Church. The Protectorate also banned Christmas and other celebrations. The Restoration/Glorious Revolution - Charles II issued the Declaration of Indulgence, the non-enforcement of laws against Catholics in England. Parliament, seeing that Charles was becoming a bit too tolerant, issued the Test Acts, which required all office holders to be Anglican. 7 - Charles II makes the Treaty of Dover with his ally Louis XIV, which has England engage in the Franco-Dutch war for financial compensation. - James II was an open Papist (Catholic). He dismissed his Lord of the Treasury after he refused to convert to Catholicism. James II also believed in absolutism and the divine right of kings, revoking the Test Acts and other laws Parliament passed. - William of Orange was invited to rule alongside Mary Stuart, James II’s daughter. They governed England in a joint monarchy and signed the English Bill of Rights, establishing the first constitutional monarchy. Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments The Scientific Revolution - Nicolaus Copernicus developed the idea of heliocentrism: the Sun, rather than the Earth, was the center of the universe, and the stars and planets revolved around it. Copernicus published his theories in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543. His heliocentric theory destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics, which had a geocentric model with perfect heavenly bodies. - Johannes Kepler developed the 3 laws of planetary motion: the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical (rather than circular), planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits, and the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the Sun. He proved this mathematically. - Galileo Galilei developed the law of inertia: motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force. - Isaac Newton developed the law of universal gravitation: all objects are attracted to one another and the force of attraction is proportional to the object’s quantity of matter and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Newton explained the ideas of his predecessors in his Principia Mathematica, published in 1687. Newton’s ideas were popularly accepted until Albert Einstein challenged them in the early 20th century. The Consumer Revolution - In the Industrious Revolution, families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages rather than producing goods for household consumption. This allowed them to purchase consumer goods, which were targeted particularly at women. These new patterns of labor and consumption established important foundations for the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The Enlightenment - Thinkers of the Enlightenment believed in progress, freedom of thought and expression, education of the masses (including women), liberty to all men (battle against absolutism), and individualism. Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge, challenged the 8 prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. - The philosophes were French philosophers who applied scientific reasoning to human nature. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: wrote The Social Contract, which argued for equal rights (excluding women and nonwhite races) and that government policy should reflect the general will of the people. Rousseau believed that man needs a strong absolutist centralized power and he attacked private property. - Montesquieu believed in separation of political powers in government. He believed there were only 3 types of government (monarchy, republicanism, and despotism). - René Descartes was a champion of rationalism, a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith and everything was to be submitted to reason. His Cartesian dualism and rationalism is summarized by his most famous quote “I think, therefore I am.” - Voltaire: Religious toleration and contempt for the power of the Catholic Church. - Diderot: Co-author of the Encyclopedia, the combined manifesto of the French philosophes. - John Locke wrote The Social Contract, which states that the government is created to protect its citizens’ natural rights of life, liberty, property. He believed that the “divine right of kings” was illegitimate. - Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan to argue that only an absolutist government is able to save man from his natural state of savagery. - The Scientific Method uses a combination of deductive and inductive reasoning to come to conclusions. - deductive reasoning (René Descartes): rationale based on pattern recognition and facts - inductive reasoning (Sir Francis Bacon): rationale based on observation and experimentation - Marquis de Condorcet: Equal rights (including women and all races), constitutional government, liberal economy - Mary Wollstonecraft: proto-feminist and author of A Vindication on the Rights of Woman, which approached feminist ideas based on liberal theory. Wollstonecraft advocated for women’s education especially - utilitarianism: the idea of Jeremy Bentham that social policies should promote the “greatest good for the greatest number.” - Secularism was a concept popularized during the Enlightenment. It argued that government and other institutions should exist entirely separate from religion and the Catholic Church. Religious tolerance also became more widespread. - neoclassical art: return to Greco-Roman romanticization, such as in Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii. - deism: the belief in a distant God but denial of organized religion, basing one’s belief on the light of reason Enlightened Despotism - The Enlightened despots were authoritarian leaders who used their political power according to the principles of the Enlightenment. 9 - The War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) began when Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia from Austria’s Maria Theresa. The war’s inconclusive end helped set the stage for the Seven Years’War. - In Prussia, Frederick the Great expanded religious toleration (but still preferred Protestantism). He also allowed non-noblemen to fill government roles. A friend of French philosophe Voltaire, Frederick was also the first “servant of the state.” - The Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II was extremely tolerant, even of Jewish worship. However, at this time, the position of Holy Roman Emperor lacked real power, and the multi-ethnic population of the Empire made it hard for Joseph II to centralize. - Catherine the Great of Russia significantly expanded Russian territory. She was a champion of the arts and Enlightenment ideals, though she still practiced serfdom and authoritarianism. Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) - France aided Austria in winning back Silesia from the Prussians, who had formed an alliance with England. Not religious like previous wars, the Seven Years’ War was a colonial/global balance of power war. At its end in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, France gave all of its North American colonies to England, and the balance of power shifted toward Britain. The French Revolution of 1789 Liberal Phase (1789-1792) - The Liberal phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary privileges. During the Liberal Phase, the bourgeoisie dominated the reform conversation. Liberal reformers advocated for a constitutional monarchy, liberal reform, and abolition of eccleastical/aristocratic privilege. Its main influences were John Locke (liberalism) and Montesquieu (constitutionalism). The National Assembly and Legislative Assembly were governing during this period. - France’s loss in the Seven Years’ War and investment in the American Revolution caused a financial crisis for the Ancien Regime. The royal family, Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, lived in the luxurious palace of Versailles and the First (clergy) and Second (aristocracy) Estates were exempt from taxation while the Third (common masses) Estate starved. However, wealthy bourgeoisie members of the Third Estate were more focused on gaining political power and a liberal constitution than bread. - Emmanuel Joseph Sièyes’s What is the Third Estate? (Answer: Everything) describes the Third Estate's oppression pre-Revolution. 10 - Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General, but its failure forced him to allow the National Assembly to meet in 1789. - The Marquis de Lafayette, who fought in the American Revolution, wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which championed equality and other natural rights seen in the American Declaration of Independence. - Olympe de Gouges wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman to attack Rousseau’s homemaker view of women. - The Fall of the Bastille, demonstrating the Great Fear mentality of the French peasantry, was sparked by the starvation and economic concerns of the Third Estate. A similar event was the Women’s March to Versailles. - After taking the symbolic Tennis Court Oath, in which the legislative representatives of the National Assembly promised to ratify a constitution, the First French Constitution was ratified in 1791, giving all lawmaking power to the National Assembly. - Political Spectrum of the National Assembly (left to right): Montagnards (socialist-leaning), sans-culottes (emerging middle class), Georges Danton’s Jacobins (liberal), Centrists, Girondists (center-right), Monarchiens (monarchist) Radical Phase (1793-1794) - The Radical phase’s main influence was Jean-Jacques Rousseau (general will). The National Convention and Committee of Public Safety were governing during this period. - Louis XVI was convicted of treason and beheaded in 1793. After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Maxamilien Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization. Robespierrre formed the Committee of Public Safety, which held dictatorial power and was allowed to use whatever force necessary to defend the Revolution. - Facing moderate opposition, Robespierre’s Committee sought to impose republican unity across the nation. The Committee collaborated with the sans-culottes and created a planned economy with egalitarian social overtones. Though the state was too weak to enforce all its price regulations, it did fix the price of bread in Paris at levels the poor could afford. - The Reign of Terror was the period from 1793 to 1794 during which Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. While the radical economic measures furnished the poor with bread and the armies with supplies, this event enforced compliance with republican beliefs and practices. The liberal Constitution of 1793 was indefinitely suspended in favor of a “revolutionary government.” Presented as a necessary measure to save the republic, the Terror was a weapon directed against all suspected of opposing the revolutionary government. Directory Phase (1795-1799) - The Thermidorian Reaction occurred after the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls. The middle-class, who had led the liberal Revolution of 1789, reasserted their authority. They proclaimed an end to the revolutionary expediency of the Terror and the return of representative government, the rule of law, and liberal economic policies. 11 Napoleonic Phase (1799-1815) - Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory in 1799 in a coup d’état. From 1799 to 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte was the emperor of France. Creating a Grand Empire through his military proficiency, Napoleon had control over much of Europe. He put into motion several revolutionary ideas, such as the abolishment of serfdom, but at heart he was still a military dictator. As he upset the balance of power among European leaders, multiple alliances were made to try to stop him. Napoleon can be considered the father of nationalism; he used patriotic propaganda to encourage the French spirit for centralization. - Jacques-Louis David’s Napoleon Crossing the Alps is a neoclassical piece glorifying Napoleon’s conquests. It is not to be confused with Paul Delaroche’s Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, which depicts them more realistically. - Napoleon’s Concordat of 1801 restored Catholic worship in France. It was extremely popular among the French people. Napoleon also bargained with the liberal middle class with his Napoleonic Code. It reasserted the 1789 principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property, as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws. - In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French. Interestingly, in the beginning of his rule, he never referred to himself as the Emperor of France, only of the French. His dictatorial reign employed secret police and censorship, but it was also liberal at times, like in the Napoleonic Code. This begs the question: did Napoleon betray the French Revolution, or did he complete it? - After 1806 Napoleon attempted to create the Continental System, which was meant to halt all trade between Britain and continental Europe. If it had succeeded, it would have destroyed the British economy and its military force. In the 1807 Treaties of Tilsit, Alexander I of Russia pledged his support for Napoleon and his Grand Empire. - By 1808, Napoleon had conquered much of Europe. However, Spain resisted when he attempted to place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. - Napoleon’s “Spanish Ulcer” was displayed in Francisco Goya’s Romantic piece The Second of May. - Napoleon turned on Alexander I of Russia, who had opened Russian ports to British goods in December 1810. Napoleon’s invasion of Russia began in June 1812. Napoleon recklessly pressed on toward Moscow even when winter started. Alexander ordered the evacuation of Moscow, which the Russians then burned in part, and finally, after 5 weeks in the scorched and abandoned city, Napoleon ordered a retreat, one of the greatest military disasters in history. The Russian army, the Russian winter, and starvation cut Napoleon’s army to pieces. - Austria and Prussia abandoned Napoleon and joined Russia and Great Britain in the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. Together, these powers formed the Quadruple Alliance and defeated the French emperor. Napoleon abdicated in 1814, and the Bourbon dynasty returned under Louis XVIII. The new monarch’s Constitutional Charter accepted many of France’s revolutionary changes and kept the guaranteed civil liberties that Napoleon established. - Napoleon took back power from Louis XVIII in February 1815. After the frantic period of the Hundred Days, the allies crushed his forces at Waterloo in June. Napoleon was 12 imprisoned in St. Helena, a remote Atlantic island. Louis XVIII returned to the throne, and the allies dealt with the French more harshly. The Congress of Vienna - It took the alliance of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain to force Napoleon to abdicate his throne. It wasn’t until after trying to seize power once again in 1815 that he was finally stopped for good. Major European leaders met in Austria in 1815 to re-establish order and undo the French Revolution after Napoleon’s defeat. - The Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria) defeated Napoleon and led the “Concert of Europe,” which sought to uphold peace through conservative policies. - Metternich: Austrian foreign minister and conservative. He wanted stability within and between states, traditional institutions and aristocracy. He defended his elite class and its rights and privileges, as he and other conservatives regarded tradition as the basic foundation of human society. He believed that under a conservative government, the Austrian Empire would be saved, while under liberalism (each national group had a right to establish its own independent government), central Europe would be revolutionized and it would be destroyed. - The German Confederation was established after Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia), a symbol of repression of liberal/revolutionary movements, issued the Karlsbad Decrees in 1819 to repress the German Confederation. These Decrees required the German states to outlaw liberal political organizations, police their universities and newspapers, and establish a permanent committee with spies and informers to clamp down on liberal or radical reformers. - In Russia, the 1825 liberal Decembrist Revolt was utterly crushed by troops loyal to Tsar Nicholas I. Through censorship, military might, secret police, imprisonment, and execution, conservative regimes in central Europe used the powers of the state to repress liberal reform wherever possible.