AP European History FRQ PDF

Question 5: 1. Nationalism in Germany: A Force for Unification and Power Key Developments: ​ Revolutions of 1848: German nationalists sought to unify the many independent German-speaking states. The Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49) attempted to create a unified Germany, but it failed...

Question 5: 1. Nationalism in Germany: A Force for Unification and Power Key Developments: ​ Revolutions of 1848: German nationalists sought to unify the many independent German-speaking states. The Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49) attempted to create a unified Germany, but it failed due to lack of military support and opposition from Prussia and Austria. ​ Bismarck and Realpolitik (1860s-1871): Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck used nationalism strategically to unify Germany through a series of wars: ○​ War with Denmark (1864) – Established Prussia’s dominance in German affairs. ○​ Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Defeated Austria and excluded it from German unification. ○​ Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) – United northern and southern German states against France, leading to the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 under Prussian leadership. ​ Rise of a Powerful German Empire: Germany emerged as a unified, industrial, and militarily dominant nation in Europe. Nationalism in Germany fostered: ○​ Economic and military expansion. ○​ A strong sense of cultural identity. ○​ Loyalty to the newly formed German state. Outcome in Germany: Nationalism led to political unification, economic growth, and military strength, making Germany one of the most powerful nations in Europe by 1914. 2. Nationalism in the Austrian Empire: A Force for Division and Decline Key Challenges: ​ Ethnic Diversity: Unlike Germany, the Austrian Empire was a multi-ethnic empire with numerous national groups, including Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Serbs, Croats, and Romanians. This made national unity difficult.  ​ Revolutions of 1848: Nationalist uprisings erupted across the empire, particularly in Hungary and Bohemia, as different ethnic groups demanded independence or greater autonomy. While Austria suppressed these revolts, tensions remained. ​ Austro-Prussian War (1866) and Decline: Austria’s defeat by Prussia weakened its influence in German affairs and forced it to focus on internal stability. ​ The Dual Monarchy (1867): To appease the Hungarian nationalists, Austria created the Austro-Hungarian Empire, granting Hungary its own government while still being under the Habsburg monarchy. However: ○​ This compromise failed to satisfy other ethnic groups, leading to continued nationalist tensions. ○​ The empire became politically fragile, with different ethnic groups demanding greater autonomy or independence. Outcome in Austria-Hungary: ​ Nationalism weakened the empire, increasing internal divisions. ​ Serbian nationalism played a key role in destabilizing the Balkans, leading to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) and the start of World War I. Conclusion: A Unifying Force vs. A Divisive Force ​ In Germany, nationalism was a unifying force that led to the creation of a strong, centralized nation-state. ​ In Austria-Hungary, nationalism was a destabilizing force that deepened ethnic tensions and contributed to the empire’s decline. By 1914, Germany stood as a strong, united empire, while Austria-Hungary faced increasing fragmentation—eventually leading to its collapse after World War I. Question 2: The Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries) emphasized reason, rationality, and human progress, promoting the idea that individuals were capable of making logical decisions and improving society through knowledge and education. However, the ideas of Charles Darwin and Sigmund Freud in the 19th and early 20th centuries challenged these Enlightenment assumptions by introducing concepts that emphasized biological instincts, subconscious drives, and the limits of human rationality. 1. Charles Darwin: Evolution and the Challenge to Rational Human Superiority Key Ideas: Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, as presented in On the Origin of Species (1859), argued that: ​ All species, including humans, evolved from common ancestors through natural selection. ​ Survival depended on inherited traits that provided advantages in reproduction. ​ Human behavior was shaped by biological instincts and the need for survival, rather than purely rational thought. Challenge to Enlightenment Assumptions: ​ Contradicted Human Exceptionalism: Enlightenment thinkers often viewed humans as unique and superior beings, governed by reason rather than instinct. Darwin, however, suggested that humans were just another product of natural selection, challenging the belief in human supremacy. ​ Undermined Rational Control: Enlightenment philosophy assumed that human beings had full control over their decisions through reason. Darwin’s theory implied that much of human behavior was influenced by evolutionary instincts—such as competition, survival, and reproduction—rather than conscious rationality. ​ Challenged Religious and Moral Foundations: Many Enlightenment thinkers, though often secular, still believed in a rational, ordered universe that implied some moral or divine order. Darwin’s theory suggested that life was shaped by random mutation and survival pressures, not a grand, rational plan. Example of Impact: Darwin’s ideas influenced later thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, who applied evolutionary theory to human society (Social Darwinism), arguing that struggle and competition were natural forces in shaping human progress—an idea that was used to justify capitalism, imperialism, and even eugenics. 2. Sigmund Freud: The Subconscious and the Limits of Rationality Key Ideas: Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, argued that human behavior was largely driven by unconscious forces. In works such as The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), he introduced key concepts: ​ The Unconscious Mind: Much of human thought and behavior is shaped by unconscious desires, fears, and memories that people are unaware of. ​ The Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud proposed that human psychology is driven by conflicting forces: ○​ Id: Primitive, instinctual desires (e.g., aggression, sexual impulses). ○​ Ego: The rational, conscious self that tries to balance desires with reality. ○​ Superego: The moral conscience, shaped by societal expectations. ​ Repression and Irrationality: Many of our thoughts and desires are repressed because they are socially unacceptable, but they still influence our actions in unconscious ways. Challenge to Enlightenment Assumptions: ​ Questioned Rational Decision-Making: Enlightenment thinkers believed that people were primarily driven by reason. Freud, however, argued that most human behavior was irrational and driven by unconscious desires, meaning people were not fully in control of their actions. ​ Redefined Human Nature: The Enlightenment promoted the idea that human nature was fundamentally rational and capable of improvement through education and reason. Freud’s theories suggested that humans were often at the mercy of unconscious drives, neuroses, and psychological conflicts. ​ Challenged Ideas of Free Will: Enlightenment philosophy emphasized free will and self-determination. Freud’s work suggested that many of our actions are dictated by unconscious processes, reducing the role of free choice. Example of Impact: Freud’s theories revolutionized psychology and influenced literature, philosophy, and art. His ideas laid the foundation for modern psychotherapy and shaped discussions about human motivation, identity, and mental illness. Conclusion: Darwin and Freud as Challenges to Enlightenment Rationality Both Darwin and Freud fundamentally reshaped how people understood human behavior: ​ Darwin argued that humans were shaped by biological evolution and survival instincts, rather than reason or divine order.  ​ Freud claimed that much of human behavior was driven by unconscious desires, rather than conscious rationality. These ideas challenged the Enlightenment belief in human reason, free will, and moral progress, forcing society to reconsider the complexity of human nature and the limits of rational thought. Question 8: The Rise of Spain (1490–1580): From Fragmented Kingdoms to a Global Empire 1. Political Unification Under Ferdinand and Isabella (1479–1516) ​ The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 laid the foundation for Spain’s political unification. ​ In 1492, Spain completed the Reconquista, expelling the Moors from Granada and consolidating Christian rule. ​ The monarchy established a strong centralized state, reducing the power of the nobility and promoting royal authority. ​ The Spanish Inquisition was used to enforce religious unity, expelling or converting Jews and Muslims. 2. Overseas Expansion and Wealth from the Americas ​ Christopher Columbus’s voyage in 1492, funded by Spain, opened the door to Spanish dominance in the Americas. ​ Conquistadors like Hernán Cortés (Mexico, 1519-21) and Francisco Pizarro (Peru, 1532-33) conquered vast territories, bringing enormous wealth to Spain. ​ Spain controlled key colonies, including the Caribbean, Mexico, Peru, and the Philippines, forming the first global empire. ​ The influx of silver from Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico) fueled Spain’s economy and allowed it to dominate European politics. 3. Military and Political Dominance in Europe ​ Under Charles V (1516–1556), Spain became the center of the Habsburg Empire, ruling the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, and Spain’s vast overseas empire.  ​ His successor, Philip II (1556–1598), expanded Spanish power further: ○​ Defeated the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). ○​ Annexed Portugal in 1580, bringing its empire under Spanish control. ○​ Enforced Catholic dominance during the Counter-Reformation. 4. Economic Strength and Cultural Flourishing ​ The New World trade made Spain the wealthiest state in Europe. ​ Spain experienced a Golden Age (Siglo de Oro, 16th–early 17th century), producing great works of literature (Cervantes' Don Quixote), art (El Greco, Velázquez), and architecture. The Decline of Spain (1580–1700): Economic Collapse and Military Defeat 1. Economic Weakness and Financial Mismanagement ​ Overreliance on American Silver: Spain’s economy became dependent on New World silver, but inflation devalued its currency and harmed local industries. ​ Neglect of Domestic Industry: Spanish rulers preferred to spend money on war rather than invest in agriculture or manufacturing. Spain imported goods rather than producing them. ​ Heavy Taxation: High taxes on peasants and artisans weakened Spain’s economy and discouraged economic growth. 2. Military Overextension and Costly Wars ​ Failed Wars in the Netherlands: Spain tried to suppress Protestant revolts in the Dutch Revolt (1568–1648), leading to the loss of the Dutch Republic (1648). ​ Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588): Philip II’s attempt to invade England failed disastrously, weakening Spain’s naval power. ​ Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648): Spain’s involvement drained resources and led to major defeats, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which reduced Spanish influence in Europe. ​ Losses to France: Spain suffered military defeats against France in the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659), losing Roussillon and Artois to France in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). 3. Social Decline and Internal Struggles  ​ Depopulation and Economic Decline: Wars, famine, and disease reduced Spain’s population, weakening its labor force. ​ Expulsion of Jews and Moriscos (1609–1614): Spain lost a significant portion of its skilled workers and merchants. ​ Nobility and Clergy Dominance: The elite preferred land ownership and government service over productive economic activity, leading to stagnation. 4. Weak Rulers and Political Decline ​ Spain’s later Habsburg rulers, Philip III (1598–1621), Philip IV (1621–1665), and Charles II (1665–1700), were ineffective and corrupt, relying on incompetent advisors. ​ Charles II’s Death (1700) led to the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), which ended with the Bourbon monarchy but at the cost of Spain losing European territories. Conclusion: A Century of Glory, Followed by Decline Spain’s rapid rise (1490–1580) was due to political unification, American wealth, military strength, and colonial expansion. However, its decline (1580–1700) resulted from economic mismanagement, costly wars, social stagnation, and weak leadership. By 1700, Spain had fallen from being Europe’s dominant power to a third-rate state, overshadowed by France and England. Question 11: Mercantilism: Economic Policies and Institutions (1600–1800) Mercantilism was the dominant economic theory in Europe from 1600 to 1800, emphasizing state control over the economy to maximize national wealth and power. It was characterized by government intervention, protectionist trade policies, and colonial exploitation to ensure a favorable balance of trade. Below are the key economic policies and institutions that defined the mercantilist system. 1. Core Economic Policies of Mercantilism A. Favorable Balance of Trade ​ Governments sought to export more than they imported to accumulate gold and silver (bullionism), which was seen as the foundation of national wealth.  ​ High tariffs on imported goods were imposed to protect domestic industries and discourage reliance on foreign products. ​ European states established monopolies and state-sponsored industries to ensure self-sufficiency and economic dominance. B. Government Regulation and State Control ​ Governments played an active role in directing economic activity, often through state-sponsored industries (e.g., textile manufacturing in France under Colbert). ​ Strict regulation of wages, prices, and production ensured stability and control over markets. ​ Many mercantilist policies were enforced through navigation laws, such as England’s Navigation Acts (1651, 1660), which restricted colonial trade to English ships. C. Colonial Expansion and Exploitation ​ Colonies were crucial to mercantilism, providing raw materials (such as sugar, tobacco, cotton, and gold) and serving as captive markets for finished goods from the mother country. ​ The Transatlantic Trade became central, with triangular trade routes exchanging European goods for African slaves, who were then sent to work in American plantations. ​ Colonies were forbidden from producing certain goods to avoid competition with the mother country (e.g., the Wool Act of 1699 and Iron Act of 1750 in British America). 2. Key Mercantilist Institutions A. Chartered Companies and Trade Monopolies ​ European governments granted monopolies to state-backed trading companies to control overseas commerce. ​ Examples: ○​ British East India Company (1600) ○​ Dutch East India Company (1602) ○​ French East India Company (1664) ​ These companies controlled large territories, established trading posts, and sometimes maintained private armies. B. State-Controlled Banking and Finance ​ Governments established state banks to manage trade and national debt, such as the Bank of England (1694) and Bank of Amsterdam (1609). ​ Subsidies and tax incentives were provided to support key industries and shipbuilding.  ​ Mercantilist nations used high tariffs to control imports and maintain gold reserves. C. Military Expansion and Protection of Trade Routes ​ Powerful navies and merchant fleets were essential to protect trade and enforce mercantilist policies. ​ Wars were often fought over trade and colonial possessions, such as the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652–1674) and the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714). 3. Criticism and Decline of Mercantilism By the late 18th century, mercantilism was increasingly criticized by economists such as Adam Smith, who argued in The Wealth of Nations (1776) that free trade and competition created more economic growth than state control. This led to the rise of laissez-faire capitalism in the 19th century. Conclusion Mercantilism was defined by government intervention, protectionist trade policies, monopolies, and colonial exploitation from 1600 to 1800. These policies helped European states accumulate wealth and expand their empires, but they also led to trade conflicts and inefficiencies that contributed to the rise of modern capitalist economies. Question 1: Between 1850 and 1914, European art movements underwent radical changes, reflecting shifts in society, politics, and culture. The transition from Realism to Impressionism, and later to Modernist movements like Cubism and Expressionism, mirrored the growing industrialization, urbanization, and political tensions of the time. These changes in art reflected scientific advancements, social struggles, and shifting perceptions of reality. 1. Realism (1850s–1870s): Reflecting Industrialization and Social Struggles Key Characteristics: ​ Depicted everyday life—focused on ordinary people, workers, and rural laborers. ​ Rejected romanticized or idealized depictions of life, instead portraying harsh realities. ​ Influenced by industrialization and social inequality. Example: Gustave Courbet’s The Stone Breakers (1849) ​ Courbet’s painting shows two laborers breaking stones, emphasizing hard work, poverty, and social struggle. ​ This reflected growing public concern over worker exploitation, class conflict, and the rise of socialism in industrial Europe. ​ As urbanization and industrial expansion created wealth disparities, Realist art captured the struggles of the working class. Reflection of Society: ​ The rise of Marxist ideas and workers’ movements in the late 19th century made realism popular, as it addressed economic struggles and class tensions. ​ Realist literature, such as Charles Dickens' Hard Times, also explored similar themes. 2. Impressionism (1870s–1890s): Urbanization and Changing Perceptions of Modern Life Key Characteristics: ​ Focused on light, movement, and daily life, often capturing urban scenes, leisure activities, and landscapes. ​ Used loose brushstrokes and vibrant colors to create fleeting impressions of moments. ​ Reflected the fast-paced, modern lifestyle of growing cities like Paris. Example: Claude Monet’s Impression, Sunrise (1872) ​ Monet painted a harbor scene at sunrise with quick brushstrokes, capturing the ephemeral beauty of light and movement. ​ This reflected the new modern, industrialized, and rapidly changing society in which people were increasingly fascinated by speed, technology, and urban life. Reflection of Society:  ​ Impressionism mirrored the effects of industrialization, particularly in cities where train stations, bustling streets, and cafés became central themes. ​ The growing middle class, who enjoyed leisure activities, was reflected in works by artists like Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted social gatherings in cafés and dance halls. ​ The invention of photography changed how artists perceived reality, influencing Impressionists to focus on how light and movement affected a scene rather than precise details. 3. Post-Impressionism and Modernism (1890s–1914): Psychological Exploration and the Breakdown of Traditional Forms Key Characteristics: ​ Broke away from Impressionism by emphasizing symbolism, emotion, and abstraction. ​ Expressed deeper psychological and philosophical ideas. ​ Pushed the boundaries of representation, leading to Cubism, Expressionism, and Abstract Art. Example: Pablo Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (1907) ​ Cubist style—depicted fragmented figures using geometric shapes. ​ Rejected traditional perspective and realism, reflecting a world that felt increasingly chaotic and fragmented. ​ Represented growing anxieties about modernity, colonial influences, and shifting social norms. Reflection of Society: ​ The period before World War I saw rising tensions, nationalism, and political instability—Cubism and Expressionism reflected uncertainty and a break from old traditions. ​ The growing interest in psychology (Sigmund Freud’s theories of the unconscious) influenced artists like Edvard Munch, whose painting The Scream (1893) captured existential fear and anxiety. ​ As Europe headed toward war and revolution, traditional artistic forms broke down, just as old political and social orders were beginning to collapse. Conclusion The changes in art movements from Realism to Impressionism and eventually to Modernism reflected broader societal transformations: ​ Realism captured the struggles of industrialization and class conflict. ​ Impressionism reflected urbanization, technological advancements, and the fast-paced nature of modern life. ​ Post-Impressionism and Modernism expressed growing anxieties about politics, psychology, and the uncertainties of the 20th century. These shifts in art mirrored Europe’s changing values, technology, and social structures, setting the stage for the even more radical artistic experiments of the 20th century. 4o O