AP Euro Unit 1 Review 2024 PDF

AP Euro Unit 1 Renaissance - Western Absolutism The Late Middle Ages (1300-1450) - The Black Death (1347): Bubonic plague carried by fleas, kill ⅓ of Europe - The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): sour Anglo-French relations - critics of the Church emerge - Babylonian Captivity (1309-...

AP Euro Unit 1 Renaissance - Western Absolutism The Late Middle Ages (1300-1450) - The Black Death (1347): Bubonic plague carried by fleas, kill ⅓ of Europe - The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): sour Anglo-French relations - critics of the Church emerge - Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): pope moves to Avignon, France & influenced by French kings; damages papal prestige - Great Schism (c.1377-1417): 3 popes in Italy and France - Byzantine Empire falls (1453): Ottoman Empire spreads into northeastern Europe - scholars move to Italy (dislike Muslim rule) - Crusades: TAKE BACK THE HOLY LAND!!! - outcome: can’t take back Holy Land, Europeans defeated - trade of goods & knowledge between East & West improves - this supplies the knowledge to start the Renaissance  Renaissance (c.1300-1600) “rebirth” of classics - Roman & Greek art and literature, rationalism, education, and looking back to the past; mainly in Italy but also in Northern Europe (only for upper class)  Italian City-States - northern Italian cities develop international trade - brings in wealth & knowledge to support Renaissance - Italy becomes more urban - balance of power system emerge (weaker states ally together to balance strong states) - Republic of Florence: center of Renaissance - dominated by Medici family (patron of the arts) - Duchy of Milan & the Sforza family - Rome is controlled by pope (Papal States) Decline of city-states: - France and Spain’s power struggle is fought on Italy (becomes battleground) - Sack of Rome (1527) Holy Roman Empire (Emperor Charles V) send army to protect Rome (pope), but soldiers instead sack Rome - ends Italian Renaissance  Humanism - a revival of the classics (Roman and Greek stuff ) and focus less on religion but on being human - Individualism: focus on the potential of humans and the individual - In Middle Ages, humans were seen as small, insignificant and should focus solely on salvation - Secularism: focus on things that are not religious (Italian Renaissance) - still religious but does not dictate whole life - Classicism: revival of antiquity (Roman and Greek) in philosophy, literature, art - look back at Latin & Greek texts - Rationalism: critical thinking, reason, and nature that was key to a good life - question long-standing beliefs (especially of Church, part of secularism) - stand up for oneself for one’s beliefs (individualism) - Importance of Education: heightened focus on education (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, moral philosophy, etiquette) - Civic Humanism: education should prepare leaders who would be active in civil affairs - man should actively be engaged in civil affairs and the world  Petrarch (1304-1374) Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) the “father of humanism” - expert in Latin - write in Italian vernacular - On the False Donation of - language spoken by Constantine (1444) ordinary people - expose Donation of - most texts were Constantine as a fraud written in Latin at the using textual criticism time - rationalism: question religious texts - individualism: stand up for himself - classicism: look back at Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Latin text - Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) - most famous Renaissance work on nature of humankind - humans were created by God and have potential for greatness - individualism & rationalism Niccolò Machiavelli Baldassare Castiglione (1469-1527) (1478-1529) - The Prince (1513) - The Book of the Courtier (1528) - very important political treatise - Renaissance social etiquette (for wealthier classes) - lay out how effective leaders should rule - qualities to be a true gentleman/ “Renaissance - civic humanism man" - individualism - know Greek and Roman - “the ends justifies the means” - warrior - “it is better to be feared than loved” - play music - practical and cunning, aggressive and - dance ruthless - modest but confident demeanor - behave like lion (powerful) and fox (sly) - in Middle Ages, you were only a master in one area - virtú: quality of being a great man Johann Gutenberg’s printing press - one of the most important inventions in human history - invented 1440 - make printing cheaper & faster - help spread humanistic literature to rest of Europe - help spread the Reformation - encourage growth of vernacular (education) Patronage - a patron (wealthy family & the Church) pays an artist for artwork - Florence leads Renaissance art in 1400s (quattrocento) - Lorenzo de’ Medici (the Lorenzo de’ Medici “Magnificent”) - local churches see Renaissance art as a way to glorify God - Rome is center of Renaissance art in 1500s (cinquecento) - Pope Alexander VI (r.1492-1503) - Pope Julius II (r.1503-1513) - Pope Leo X (r.1513-1521) Pope Alexander VI - in Northern Renaissance, Fugger family patronize significant art Jakob Fugger Artistic techniques - geometric perspective: 3D effects (depth, balance, proportion) - chiaroscuro: use of dark & light colors to create illusion of depth - sfumato: “smoky effect” technique of blurring sharp outlines (Leonardo) - Greek temple architecture: columns, triangular pediments, domes (Roman) vs. Artistic techniques cont. - Sculpture - in Middle Ages: relief sculptures (not free-standing, no 360° view), tombs, highly detailed by no glorification of human body - in Renaissance: free-standing, contrapposto (weight on one leg, natural standing position), glorify human body (nude) vs.  High Renaissance - peak of Renaissance: classical balance, harmony, restraint, patronage from popes Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) (Renaissance man) - Mona Lisa, The Last Supper Raphael (1483-1520) - School of Athens Michelangelo (1475-1564) - David, Pietà  Christian Humanism Northern Renaissance - focus more on religion than Italian - seek to improve society and reform the Church - less classics, more religious - criticism of Church -> the Reformation Erasmus (1466-1536) - In Praise of Folly (1509) - sought to reform Church as devout Catholic Erasmus - satirized worldly ambitions, including those of clergy - criticize immorality & hypocrisy of Church - influence Martin Luther - “Erasmus lay the egg the Luther hatched” Thomas More (1478-1536) - Utopia (1516) - civic humanism + religious ideals - describe perfect society - war, poverty, religious intolerance, etc. do not exist Thomas More  Northern Renaissance Art Flemish Style - Low Countries - depth, balance, proportion (from Italian Renaissance) - more detail - more emotional - death theme - common people (in Italy only paint wealthy people) Jan Van Eyck (c.1339-c.1441) - Arnolfini and his Wife Peter Brueghel the Elder (1520-1569) - Peasant Dance, The Battle Between Carnival and Lent Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) - Adam and Eve Society in the 16th and 17th Centuries - rigidly hierarchical - “Long 16th Century”: population growth from 1450-1650 (recover to pre-Plague levels) - local church & authorities continue to enforce communal norms - charivari: form of public humiliation - family remained primary social and economic institution of early modern Europe - nuclear family (parents & children) - Witch Hunts common until Scientific Revolution Women in the Renaissance La Querelle des Femmes - “The Woman Question,” the proper role of women in society - in Middle Ages, men died more (in Crusades) so women gained power to fill in men’s positions - women lost status in Renaissance, just an “ornament” to husbands Christine de Pisan - The City of Ladies: survival manual for artisan’s wives, chronicling the accomplishments of great women in history Isabella d’Este: “First Lady” of Renaissance, ruler of Mantua after her husband died and broke away from traditional role of ornament In Marriage: daughters given out of economic considerations, not love (dowries) Witch Hunts: women, as “weaker vessels” were 80% of witch hunt victims - no husband = no protection, power, money - blame midwives for infant death - pinning the blame on a certain group of people is a repeating trend - ends during Scientific Revolution The Reformation Background - Babylonian Captivity, 14th century - Pope move to Avignon, France & influenced by French kings - Great Schism, 1377-1417 - 3 popes in Italy and France Abuses/Corruptions of the Catholic Church: - simony: sale of church offices (not meritocracy) - pluralism: hold more than one office at a time - absenteeism: official not participate in benefices but still get paid - sale of indulgences: people pay to absolve sins or sins of loved ones (Johann Tetzel) - nepotism: appointing family members to offices (2 popes were Medici) - clerical ignorance: many priests illiterate & couldn’t educate people Early Critics: - John Wycliffe (Lollards) - John Hus (Hussites) - Erasmus & Christian Humanism (see slide 16) John Wycliffe  Martin Luther (1483-1546) - sale of indulgences (by Johann Tetzel, authorized by pope to sell) was biggest issue - 95 Theses, Oct 31, 1517: criticize selling of indulgences & question scriptural authority of pope to grant indulgences - Luther wanted to reform the Church, not break away - printing press helps spread his work - protected by Elector Frederick III the Wise of Saxony (elect Holy Roman Emperor, so very powerful) - deny infallibility of pope and general council - salvation is through faith alone - Catholic Church salvation is through faith and good works - Bible was sole authority, not pope or clergy - only 2 sacraments: baptism & communion Martin Luther - reject transubstantiation (bread and blood transform into actual blood and body) - advocate consubstantiation (“Real Presence” of Christ) - “priesthood of all believers”: no hierarchy - read, interpret, believe in Bible personally without a middle man - Luther was excommunicated in 1520  Martin Luther cont. - Diet of Worms (1521): HRE Charles V outlaw Luther as a heretic - “kidnapped” by Frederick III and taken to castle - translate Bible into vernacular., drive literacy & education - Confessions of Augsburg (1530): attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran & Catholic princes of HRE - rejected by Catholic princes - Germany starts to break off of Catholic influence “Here I stand; I can do no other.” - many German states in north turn to Lutheranism (south remained Catholic) - could escape authority of Catholic Church & confiscate land - spread to Northern Germany & Scandinavia but not much beyond Peasants’ War/German Peasants Revolt (1524-1525) - Twelve Articles: German peasants demand end to serfdom and tithes - many inspired by Lutheranism - Luther’s religious freedom misinterpreted by peasants as freedom of serfs - Luther oppose, disgusted with violence - revolts crushed by both Catholics and Lutherans Schmalkaldic League (1531) (or League of Schmalkalden) - Protestant (Lutheran) princes band together to defend themselves against Charles V - Francis I of France ally with League (although French were Catholic) - France & Germany are traditional enemies - enemy of enemy is friend - play important role in long-term political fragmentation of Germany - Germany will never be united under Catholicism - Charles V is victorious in 1547 but Lutheranism keeps spreading - by 1550s Charles gives up on restoring Catholicism in HRE, splits the empire (Spain & Austria) Peace of Augsburg (1555) - temporary peace to end struggle in Germany over Lutheranism - princes could choose Protestantism or Catholicism for their own region - only Lutheranism and Catholicism (no Calvinism, etc.) - Protestants in Catholic states move to Protestant states, and vice versa - permanent religious division in Germany (Lutherans in north and Catholics in south) - stunt German nationalism & unificiation Anabaptists - believers with no connection or allegiance to any state - refuse to take civil oaths, pay taxes, hold public office, or serve in military - oppose child baptism - 1532 radial group of revolutionary Anabaptists took control of the German city of Münster - Tragedy at Münster (1534): Protestant and Catholic armies capture city and execute Anabaptist leaders Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) - Reformation in Switzerland - theocracy in Zurich w/ Lutheranism - Eucharist is only symbolic, “Real Presence” is too Catholic - split from Luther Ulrich Zwingli  John Calvin (1509-1564) - Frenchman influenced by humanism, Erasmus, and Luther - exiled to Switzerland for religious reform ideas - Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) - Predestination: God is all-knowing, already knows who is destined to Heaven or Hell - good works is not sufficient for salvation but are a sign that one is chosen for salvation - God reveals if one has been chosen by a conversion experience - the “elect”: church members who have made their conversion experience, they should be model Christians (“visible saints”) - theocracy in Geneva with a consistory, a judiciary made of lay elders (presbyters) - most militant, harsh, and uncompromising of all sects - home to Protestant exiles from England, Scotland, France, etc. and they return to their countries with Calvinist ideas - Protestant work ethic: emphasize importance of hard work and financial John Calvin success as a sign that God was pleased - use profit to self invest (early Capitalism), live simple lives Calvinism - spread of Calvinism had far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism - Presbyterianism in Scotland by John Knox - presbyters (elders) govern church - Huguenots in France - brutally suppressed - strong among nobility - Dutch Reformed Church in Netherlands - against Catholic Spanish (Spanish ruled over Dutch), set up revolt against Spanish John Knox English Reformation - William Tyndale: humanist who translated Bible into English Henry VIII (r.1509-1547) - second Tudor monarch (needs son to strengthen family) King Henry VIII - initially supported & defended Catholic Church - wanted annulment from his wife Catherine of Aragon because she couldn’t bear a son (only Mary) - enamored with mistress Anne Boleyn (a Protestant) - pope does not allow annulment - after 1527 Sack of Rome, Charles V has pope under his thumb - Catherine of Aragon was Charles’ aunt; would make her adulteress if annulment was granted  Henry VIII cont. - Cardinal Thomas Cranmer (later Archbishop of Canterbury) convinces Henry he can break away from Rome to have annulment - Henry breaks away from Rome and creates the Church of England (Anglican Church) - Act of Supremacy (1534): king is officially head of Church - church land (about quarter of English land) confiscated - Act of Succession (1534): all subjects must take an oath of loyalty to king as head of Anglican Church - Statute of the Six Articles (1539): maintained most of Catholic doctrines - Henry just wanted an annulment (he died a Catholic) - Henry’s 3rd wife, (after executing Anne Boleyn) Jane Seymore, had Edward  Edward & Mary - Edward VI (r.1547-1553) succeeded his father (age 10) - England moved towards actual Protestantism, more specifically Calvinism (those who governed for him were strongly Protestant) - premature death lead to religious struggle - Mary Tudor (r.1553-1558) unsuccessfully tried to reimpose Catholicism (mother was Catholic) King Edward VI - married Philip II of Spain (Spain was Catholic, marriage would create England + Spain Catholic empire) - rescind reformation legislation during Henry and Edward’s reigns - executed 300 people - Protestant opponents call her “Bloody Mary” Queen Mary I  Elizabeth I (r.1558-1603) - mother (Anne Boleyn) was Protestant, Elizabeth is also Protestant - she was a politique: a leader who prioritizes the strength of the state over religion - navigate a middle ground between Anglicanism and Protestantism - “Elizabethan Settlement”: require conformity to Church of England but people could worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately - Book of Common Prayer (1559): brought together Protestant doctrine but some practices resembled Catholicism - services in English - clergy allowed to marry - Thirty-Nine Articles (1563): define creed of Anglican Church - Protestant doctrine, Catholic ritual (Catholic “feel”) Queen Elizabeth I - accommodate most of the English  Women in the Reformation Protestants: - Luther believed women belong in the home taking care of family - Calvin believed in the subjugation of women to preserve order - Protestant women lost opportunities in the Church (nuns weren’t a thing) - marriage become more about love Catholics: - Ursuline Order of Nuns by Angela Merici (1474-1540) - provide education and religious training for young girls within church Angela Merici The Catholic Reformation (“Counter Reformation”) - Council of Trent (3 sessions 1545-1563): maintain Catholic doctrine - approve Index of Forbidden Books - books that supported Protestantism were banned - reforms in sale of indulgences, Church offices, bishops given more control over clergy, seminaries established to train priests - Jesuits (Society of Jesus) (1540) by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) - 3 goals: reform church thru education, spread Gospel, fight Protestantism - keep Catholics Catholic, get back Catholics who left, get new Catholics (New World) The Council of Trent - oversee Spanish and Roman Inquisition - try to convert Muslims & Jews to Catholicism Mannerism - not religious - reaction against Renaissance ideals - High Renaissance was peak so there wasn’t much to improve on - unnatural, acidic colors, elongated shapes, motion, emotion - El Greco (1541-1614): Greek artists in Spain - Burial of Count Orgaz  Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1650) - The Ecstasy of St. Theresa Baroque Art Caravaggio (1571-1610) - The Calling of St. Matthew - religious (used by Catholic Church) Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) - The Elevation of the - emotional way to glorify Catholic Church Cross - overwhelm viewer with grandeur, Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1653) - Judith Slaying emotion, movement, spaciousness Holofernes  New Monarchs, the Commercial Revolution, and Expansion  New Monarchs (c.1460-1550) - monarchs who consolidated power and created the foundation for Europe’s first modern nation-states - declare themselves sovereign (independent) and make laws secular - reduce nobility power by taxing, confiscating land, and hiring mercenary armies/creating standing armies (instead King Henry VII King Francis I of collect nobles’ armies) (England) (France) - incorporate military revolution: gunpowder (muskets, cannons) - reduce power of clergy New Monarchs: - Francis I (r.1515-1547) (Concordat of Bologna) - Henry VII (r.1485-1509) (Star Chamber) - Ferdinand (r.1478-1516) & Isabella (r.1474-1504) (Spanish Inquisition) - HRE Charles V is NOT a new monarch Queen Isabella of Castile King Ferdinand of Aragon The Commercial Revolution (c.1500-1800) - population growth produces more consumers - “Price Revolution”: inflation (influx of gold and silver from New World) - more consumers -> more demand -> raise prices -> more $ - commercialization of agriculture - middle class (bourgeoisie): grows during this time - Protestant work ethic (Calvinism) - early capitalism (laissez-faire) - Amsterdam is financial center (Dutch are Calvinist) - no usury (high interest rate) - many countries borrow from Dutch - Chartered companies: gov’t-funded companies providing monopolies in certain areas - large fleets of ships and military power (defend ships) - British East India Co. - Joint-stock companies: individual-funded companies (like chartered but multiple individuals) - get back amount invested - capitalism  The Commercial Revolution cont. - Enclosure Movement in England - Mercantilism: rival capitalism, get $ for gov’t, not individual - make colonies & force to buy - bullionism: a country should acquire as much gold and silver as possible - gold & silver is limited - Gentry in England - rich middle class (some richer than nobles) - can’t gain noble titles b/c nobility is by blood - “gentry” title given Age of Exploration - God, glory, and gold: primary motives - God: Catholicism & Calvinism - Glory: for country and individual - Gold: bullionism - advances in cartography improved navigation - Portolani: navigational maps based on compass directions and estimated distances for ports/coastal areas (viewed as state secrets by Spain & Portugal) - guns, gunpowder (pretty self-explanatory) Portugal - earliest to explore, no colonization in Asia/Africa - motivated to find all-water route to Asia for spice (less chance of getting robbed, can carry more load, shorter travel time) - Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): financed numerous expeditions along West African coastline in hopes of finding gold - usher new era of European exploration - Vasco da Gama (1460-1524): all-water expedition to India - blow Italian monopoly of trade with Asia - Brazil: major Portuguese colony in New World - direct rule by monarch - coffee, cotton, sugar (slavery!) Prince Henry the Navigator Spain - Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): famous for writings that inspired others - reach Bahamas thinking it was India - bring about domination of New World - Bartholomew de las Casas (1484-1566): priest and former conquistador (had life-changing moment from conquistador to priest) - A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1552) - criticize ruthlessness of Columbus and successors on Amerindians - help spread “black legend” (basically mudslinging between Protestants and Catholics) - Conquistadores: - Hernando Cortés & the Aztec Empire - Francisco Pizarro & the Inca Empire - these empires conquered other, smaller tribes so Christopher Columbus Europeans gathered/allied with these smaller peoples and defeated the large empires  Spain cont. - Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): split New World between Spain & Portugal to avoid war (war is expensive) - Spanish Empire: the Golden Age of Spain - Madrid -> Council of the Indies -> vice-royalties - Council of the Indies has 2 capitals: Tenochtitlan (north) and Cusco (south) - quinto tax: the Crown got ⅕ of all precious metals - Encomienda system: Spanish gov’t seek to reduce exploitation and get more Spanish people to come over to the New World (give land, workers) - Amerindians worked for owner for certain # of days per week but retain land for themselves - laws against exploitation were poorly enforced - Mestizos: Spaniard + American Indian woman - Creoles: Spaniards born in New World to Spanish parents - Mulattos: Spaniard + African slave Dutch Republic (Netherlands) - Dutch East India Company - challenge Spain in New World and controlled much of American and African trade by 1650 The Slave Trade The Triangular Trade - Middle Passage: horrific journey - Britain sell textiles, rum, etc. to for slaves across Atlantic from Africa West Africa to New World - slaves transported to West Indies (Atlantic Slave Trade) and North America - goods from West Indies and North America shipped to Britain The Columbian Exchange Wars of Religion (1559-1648)  The Habsburgs - ruling house of the HRE - Charles V (r.1519-1556) - split HRE between Spain (son) and Austria (brother) - Philip II of Spain (r.1556-1598) - seek to crush the rise of Calvinism in Netherlands (Spain controlled Netherlands) through Spanish Inquisition - Philip wanted Netherlands for its wealth (to strengthen Spanish navy) - The Dutch Revolt: William I (William of Orange, William the Silent) leads Netherlands against inquisition - United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) formed, fight for sovereignty (not religion) - Elizabeth I helps Netherlands to take out power of Spanish (enemy of my enemy) with Treaty of King Philip II Nonsuch - Spanish Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) remains under Spanish rule for fear of losing rights if Calvinist Dutch won  Catholic Spain vs. Protestant England - Mary Tudor try to reimpose Catholicism in England - marry Philip II to create huge Catholic empire - Elizabeth I reverse Mary’s course, refuse to marry Philip - Philip want revenge against England for helping the Dutch and to reimpose Catholicism in England - prepare for invasion of England in 1588 - Spanish Armada, 1588: Spain attempt to invade England, end in disaster - English navy was smaller but more maneuverable and had better arms - England rise as world naval power  King Charles IX French Wars of Religion (r.1560-1574) (at least 9 wars between 1562-1598) - most people in France were Catholic - after death of Henry II in 1559, power struggle between 3 noble families - Valois (incumbent, Catholic) - Bourbons (Huguenots, next in line if no heir from Valois) - Guise (ultra-Catholic) - Catherine de’ Medici act as regent for son Charles IX (Valois king) - Margaret of Valois marry Bourbon Huguenot Henry of Navarre to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots - Catherine spent too much $ fighting others, compromise with Huguenots to save $ - Catherine tells Charles that Huguenots are out to get him after failed assassination attempt on Huguenot admiral/advisor Coligny by Henry of Guise - instigate St. Bartholomew Day Massacre (1572): France-wide massacre of Huguenots Catherine de’ Medici  French Wars of Religion cont. - massacre initiate War of the Three Henrys (1585-1589): civil wars between Valois, Guise, and Bourbons - Henry of Navarre (Bourbon) outlives other Henrys, becomes Henry IV (r.1589-1610) - lays foundation for absolutism in France, but not absolutist himself - a politique like Elizabeth I in England (and Machiavellian) - converted to Catholicism to gain loyalty of Paris, privately remained Calvinist (most French are Catholic) - Edict of Nantes (1589): grants a degree of religious toleration to Huguenots and ushers in an era of religious pluralism - permitted private worship - permitted fortified towns (walls, military) for Huguenots Henry of Navarre, later Henry IV - religious truce more than religious toleration, but still protect  Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) - last Europe-wide religious war, Catholics vs. Protestants (last phase is not religious) - cause: failure of the Peace of Augsburg - only allow Catholicism and Lutheranism, making Calvinism illegal - 4 Phases: - Bohemian Phase (Czech Republic) - HRE officials thrown out of window for severe restrictions on Protestantism in Defenestration of Prague - Protestant forces defeated & Protestantism eliminated from Bohemia - Danish Phase - Catholics win again, height of Catholic power during the war - Edict of Restitution (1629): all territories secularized since 1552 to be restored to Catholic Church - Swedish Phase - Protestants liberate territory lost in Danish Phase under Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus (r.1611-1632) - HRE reluctantly annuls Edict of Restitution - Swedish army defeated  Thirty Years’ War cont. - French Phase “International Phase” (1635-1648) - France surrounded by Habsburgs (Spain in south & Austria in east), side with Protestants to weaken HRE despite being Catholic - Cardinal Richelieu of France ally with Protestants (Holland, Sweden, Finland, German mercenaries) to defeat HRE - politique for his policies concerning France’s political situation, not religious - Treaty of Westphalia (1648) - renew Peace of Augsburg, add Calvinism as politically accepted faith - ended Catholic Reformation in Germany - guaranteed political and religious division of Germany for centuries - HRE lose even more power (land & religious power) - further divide Germany by decline of HRE - beginning of France as dominant European power (get land & weaken HRE) - England & Brandenburg (Prussia) rise in power - balance of power diplomacy emerge in Europe Constitutionalism in Western Europe (England, c.1600-c.1700)  Background - constitutionalism: gov’t power is limited by law (rights of individuals) - constitutional monarchy: power of the monarch is limited by some constitution/parliament - England’s Magna Carta makes it one of the only countries in Europe to be somewhat of a constitutional monarchy instead of absolutist - Gentry: upper bourgeoisie in England (not nobles but very rich middle class) that dominated House of Commons (lower house of Parliament) - upper house is House of Lords, where nobles sit (inherited from father) - majority of population is Calvinist as Anglican Church lose ground - Puritans, most reform-minded of Calvinists, want to purify Church of England of Catholic elements - Protestant work ethic impact gentry - Presbyterianism dominate Scotland (elders rule church, allow more freedom) - Episcopal form dominate England (king, Archbishop of Canterbury, bishops rule in hierarchy) The Stuarts - Elizabeth I (Tudor) dies with no heir - Stuarts (Scottish house) rule England after Elizabeth, exhibiting absolutist (and later, Catholic) tendencies but limited by Parliament - absolutist Stuarts and constitutional Parliament will struggle throughout rule of Stuarts - James I: first Stuart king (son of Mary, Queen of Scots, who was executed by Elizabeth I for plotting against Elizabeth in Babington Plot) - Charles I: twice suspended Parliament & beheaded - Charles II: restored to throne with consent of Parliament - James II: exiled to France during “Glorious Revolution” Mary, Queen of Scots James I (r.1603-1625) - believed in “divine right” of kings - his power is God-given, so he answers to no one but God - gives himself absolute power - prefers episcopal church because it gives him power - Elizabeth’s wars created a huge debt left to James - dissolved Parliament twice over tax issues and free speech King James I  Charles I (r.1625-1649) - like James, claimed “divine right” - needs money to fight wars, use quartering to save money because Parliament says no to tax issues - Petition of Right (1628): Parliament’s attempt to encourage the king to grant basic legal rights in return for granting tax increases - only Parliament had right to levy taxes, etc. - habeas corpus (trial) - no forced quartering - no martial law in peacetime - Charles dissolves Parliament in 1629 - uses Medieval taxes like “Ship money”: all counties were required to pay to outfit ships - persecutes Puritans (biggest reason for English Civil War) - Short Parliament (1640): Charles needed new taxes to fight against revolting Scottish after trying to impose Anglicanism on the Presbyterian Scots - still refused to sign Petition of Rights, disbands Parliament in a month (short) - Long Parliament (1640-1648): desperate for $, Charles finally agreed to certain King Charles I demands by Parliament - Petition of Right & only money to fight Scottish, but not revolting Irish - tried to impose Anglicanism on Catholic Irish  English Civil War (1642-1649) - Part 1: Puritans & Presbyterians vs. King - Part 2: Puritans vs. King & Presbyterians - cause: Charles tried to arrest Puritan members of Parliament after they refused to give him an army to fight an Irish rebellion - Charles declared war against Parliament opponents in 1642 - Cavaliers supported the king (clergy, Anglican supporters, nobility, eventually Irish Catholics fearing Puritanism more than Anglicanism) - Roundheads opposed the king (Puritans, Presbyterians, businessmen, most of Parliament)  English Civil War cont. - Parliament couldn’t raise an army, only kings could (as per New Monarchs) - Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), Puritan military leader of Roundheads, leads New Model Army to victory against Charles under the Militia Ordinance by Parliament - Charles surrenders himself to Scots, convince them to invade England by promising Scots a Presbyterian system if they defeated Cromwell (Charles is Scottish as a Stuart) - Cromwell thwarts Scottish invasion - Pride’s Purge (1648): Thomas Pride purges Parliament of all non-Puritans and Presbyterians - leaves a “Rump Parliament” with only ⅕ of members Execution of Charles I remaining - tries Charles for treason, beheads him in 1649 and effectively ends civil war The Interregnum under Oliver Cromwell - Interregnum (1649-1660): rule without king - The Commonwealth: a Puritan Republic (no king or nobility) - in reality, a military state dictatorship - Scottish Presbyterians oppose Puritan rule, proclaim Charles II as new king but Cromwell defeats Scottish invasion again - The Protectorate (1654-1659): a military dictatorship under “Lord Protector,” Cromwell - deny religious freedom to Anglicans and Catholics (turn into a Stuart monarch) - Cromwell invades Ireland in 1649 to crush an Irish uprising - ⅔ of Irish land goes to Protestant English colonists - potatoes become staple in Ireland because it can grow anywhere (English took all good land) - Cromwell conquers Scotland in 1651-2 (United Kingdom) - people dislike gov’t when they start regulating morality of the people enforced by the army Oliver Cromwell - Cromwell’s son is ineffective leader, Charles II is restored to throne in 1660 Scotland (unicorn) is chained by the crown, symbolizing its history of being brought under control of the English monarch.  Charles II (r.1660-1685) - Cavalier Parliament restores Charles II to the throne with limitations to power - known as “Merry Monarch” for going along with parliament - not a divine right absolutist - Clarendon Code: drive out all Puritans of political and religious life - Test Act of 1673: exclude those unwilling to receive sacrament of Church of England from voting, holding office, peaching, teaching, attending universities, or assembling for meetings (target Puritans & Catholics) - Charles seemed to support Catholics - Parliament passes Habeas Corpus Act (1679): speedy, fair trials, no double jeopardy - Charles tried to impose episcopal form of church hierarchy in Scotland, kills thousands in Scotland for resisting dictatorship in “Killing Time” (essentially becomes his father) - Treaty of Dover (1670): England converts to Catholicism, France and King Charles II England fight against Protestant Dutch  (r.1685-1688) James II & the Glorious Revolution, 1688 - James wants to return England to Catholicism - grant freedom of worship to Catholics - birth of Catholic heir in 1688 (2nd marriage) - Parliament is done fighting over religion with the Stuarts - Glorious Revolution, 1688: start of true constitutional monarchy England - James II forced to abdicate - James’ daughters from 1st (Protestant) marriage were Mary and Anne - Parliament invites Mary’s husband, William of Orange (from Netherlands,) to assume English throne - William prepares to invade England from Holland, James flee to France - William III and Mary II are declared joint sovereigns - Bill of Rights (1689) (English, not American) - William and Mary accept “Bill of Rights” - include Petition of Right and Habeas Corpus Act William and Mary - England becomes a constitutional monarchy - Act of Settlement (1701) - if King William or Anne died w/o children, throne would pass to granddaughter of James I, Hanoverian electress dowager or her Protestant heirs - Anne dies in 1714, Hanoverian heir assumes throne as George I Absolutism in Western Europe (France, c.1589-1715)  Background - absolutism: belief in “divine right of kings,” where kings have absolute power over their subjects - sovereignty of a country is embodied in the person of the ruler - king not subordinate to national assemblies - nobility brought under control (nobles are threat to throne) - bureaucracies to divide power among people - Thomas Hobbes’ (1588-1679) Leviathan: humans in a state of nature: solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, short & strong - power of ruler is derived from people (not divine right from God) - people give up rights to the gov’t ⇔ gov’t protects people - gov’t = ruler (absolute monarch) Thomas Hobbes  French Absolutism - three estates: French society was divided these estates - First Estate: clergy, 1% of population - Second Estate: nobility, 3-4% of population - Third Estate: bourgeoisie, artisans, urban workers, peasants, 95% of population - have nothing in common - the poor are taxed but they have no $ - France was largest European country by population, become strongest nation in Europe - Henry IV (r.1589-1610): first Bourbon king, lays foundation for absolutism in France - parlements: councils of noble judges (stop nobles from seclusion) - weaken nobility by introducing “nobility of the robe,” rich middle class who purchase noble title and become high gov’t officials (equivalent to Gentry) while prohibiting the old “nobility of the sword” to influence royal council - Mercantilism under Duke of Sully (1560-1641): accumulate wealth for the gov’t, encourage developing business, reform tax system (can’t get $ from taxing poor people), improve transportation (for trade) Duke of Sully  Louis XIII (r.1610-1643) - Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642), as advisor/virtual ruler of France did most of Louis XIII’s work, laying the foundation for absolutism in France - a politique like Henry IV - Intendant System: essentially a bureaucracy that weakened the nobility, established by Henry IV, replaced local officials with civil servants (intendants) who reported directly to the king King Louis XIII ( justice, police, finance) - mostly nobles of the robe - gov’t becomes more efficient and centrally controlled - develop mercantilism by building on Sully - Peace of Alais (1629): amend Edict of Nantes by taking away Huguenots’ fortified cities and Protestant armies - still allowed to practice Calvinism, but lessen influence - as Cardinal, Richelieu would’ve wanted to strengthen Catholicism, but because he was a politique, he simply amended the Edict - fight against HRE in Thirty Years’ War to weaken Habsburgs Cardinal Richelieu  Louis XIV (r.1643-1715) - archetype of divine right absolutism in European history - longest reign in European history (72 years after rise to throne at age 5) - “L'état, c'est moi” - “I am the state” - known as the “Sun King” since he was the center of French power (everything revolve around him) - France becomes undisputed major European power during his reign - French becomes international language - France becomes a cultural capital (Louis was a patron of the arts) - Fronde (mid-late 1640s) - Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) controlled France when Louis was a child, some nobles of the sword didn’t like that a Catholic (w/o royal blood) controlled the country so they revolted against Mazarin (Louis age 5-11) - disunity and civil war among noble factions ended Fronde - Louis essentially holds a grudge against nobles for the humiliation King Louis XIV he faced and seek to control them during his reign  Louis XIV cont. - corvée: labor tax that required (and controlled) peasants to work on roads and other public projects (infrastructure for improved transportation and trade) - Versailles Palace: grandest and most impressive palace of all Europe - reinforce Louis’ powerful absolutist image - Baroque architecture to impress viewers - very expensive (60% of all royal revenues) - require nobles to live at the palace for certain time to keep an eye on them (keep friends close and enemies closer) - make nobles do things (no time for revolt) - nobles pay for recreational activities (financially control) - Edict of Fontainebleau (1685): revoke Edict of Nantes (and Peace of Alais) - Huguenots lose their right to practice Calvinism - 200,000 Huguenots flee to England, Holland, and English colonies in North America - damage French economy (Calvinists are rich) - crack down on Jansenists: Catholics who held some Calvinist ideas  French Economy under Louis XIV - Mercantilism under Jean Baptiste Colbert (1661-1683): goal was economic self-sufficiency for France (using bullionism) - construct roads and canals (better transportation, more trade) - grant gov’t-supported monopolies on certain industries - reduce internal tariffs that inhibited trade - organize French trading trading companies for int’l trade - France was Europe’s leading industrial country (by 1683) - textiles, mirrors, lacemaking, steel, firearms - merchant marine (no navy, build army) - military buildup stimulate economy due to production of uniforms, overcoats, weapons, etc. - poor peasant conditions (especially tax) resulted in large emigration - focusing more on the army instead of navy resulted in France losing naval wars with England Jean Baptiste Colbert - wars in later years of Louis’ reign undoes Colbert’s successes - France left in huge debt after Louis XIV  Wars of Louis XIV - initially successful but eventually become economically ruinous for France - France develops professional modern army - France dominates European politics like never before in modern European history - balance of power emerge in response to threat posed by Louis - after War of Devolution, the Dutch War (1672-1678): Louis invade southern Netherlands for Dutch opposition in previous war - Dutch flood countryside by opening their dykes, prevent French & English from invading Holland - English fight with French (Treaty of Dover) to restrict Dutch trade - Nine Years’ War (War of the League of Augsburg) (1688-1697): Louis invades Spanish Netherlands again - Europe realizes Louis’ expansionist ideals and forms the League of Augsburg - HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Republic - emergence of balance of power - William of Orange (now king of England) brings England against France (doesn’t join coalition, however) - begin Anglo-French military rivalry until Napoleon’s defeat - war ends with status quo prior to war  Wars of Louis XIV cont. - War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) - cause: Spanish Habsburg king Charles II gave all Spanish territories to grandson of Louis XIV, Philip of Anjou (through royal intermarraige) - European powers feared Louis would get French and Spanish thrones, creating monster power that upset balance of power - Grand Alliance emerge: England, Dutch Republic, HRE, Brandenburg, Portugal, Savoy - end with Treaty of Utrecht (1713) - maintain balance of power, end expansionism of Louis XIV - Spanish possessions partitioned - Britain gain Spanish slave trade, Gibraltar, Minorca - Austria gain Spanish Netherlands - Netherlands gain some buffer land against France - Philip becomes Bourbon king of Spain, but can’t unite with French Bourbon line - kings recognized in Sardinia (Savoy) and Prussia (Brandenburg) - future leaders of unifications of Italy/Germany End of Unit 1