Umayyad, Abbasids and Mamluks PDF

The Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates Rashidun Caliphs Second Fitna Hasan Umayyad Caliphate Battle of Karbala Jiya Tawwabun Muwali Hashimiya Muwaiyah Abu Muslim Ali ibn Abu Talib Abbasid Caliphate Sunni Is...

The Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates Rashidun Caliphs Second Fitna Hasan Umayyad Caliphate Battle of Karbala Jiya Tawwabun Muwali Hashimiya Muwaiyah Abu Muslim Ali ibn Abu Talib Abbasid Caliphate Sunni Ismaili (Sevener) Fatimid Shia First Fitna Twelver Battle of Siffen Imam Ghayba Rashidun conquest of Persia Umar’s armies first took Mesopotamia and pushed the Sassanids back to the Zagros mountains. The Arabs established two important colonies Kufah (Northern Iraq) and Basra (Southern Iraq). From these outposts they were able to launch attacks across the Zagros. The definitive battle was the battle of Nahavand in 642. When the Arabs won the last Sassanid Emperor fled to Merv the North East (Turkmenistan). In Merv both the local rulers and the White Huns turned against the Sassanids and killed the emperor in 651 ending Persian resistance to the first wave of Arab conquest. Rebellions occurred periodically during the reign of Uthman Rashidun Conquest of Egypt 639 during the Reign of Umar During the reign of Umar, the second caliph of the Arabs, Arab armies under the leadership of Amr ibn al-’As invaded and conquered Egypt in 639 CE. Egypt was then a province of the Byzantine empire, ruled by a governor residing in Alexandria.The inhabitants of Egypt, who were Monophysite Christians known as Copts. Monophysites believe that Jesus’ nature was entirely divine rather than human and divine. Byzantines regarded this as heretical. The population of Egypt resented the Byzantine domination of their country. The Muslim invaders did not care that the Copts were monophysites to them this was the same as any other kind of Christian who would have been considered ahl al-kitab or people of the book. Christian in Muslim lands were required to pay a special tax called the Jizya There are still Coptic Christians in Egypt but Egyptians were incentivized to convert to Islam to avoid the dhimmi tax that was levied in “people of the book”. Greatest Extent of the Rashidun Caliphate Fitna: Discord Muawiyah: A companion and secretary of the prophet. Muawiyah was Uthman’s cousin and governed Syria at the time of this death. Ali: The fourth caliph and cousin / son in law of the prophet Ali and the Death of the Prophet The prophet Mohammad did not have a son or clear successor. Some say that he publicly declared his cousin Ali as his successor by saying “Anyone who has me as his master should have Ali as his master” but the word he used for master (mawlā) could also mean trusted friend. When Mohammad died Ali was responsible for overseeing the burial. While he was occupied a group of leaders convened a meeting in Medina to vote on who should lead the Muslim community or (umma) Abu Bakr was elected Caliph: This is a unique Islamic title meaning successor or one who comes after. There could be no prophet after Mohammad. People who agreed with this decision to elect claimed the election was the custom or (sunna) of the Muslim community those who disagreed were said to be members of “Shiat Ali” or party of Ali Ali ibn Abu Talib (r. 656 -661) Ali was finally elected Caliph after the assinatinon of Uthman ibn Affan who was of the Umayyad clan His election was soon challenged by Aisha, the reasons are not entirely known. Uthman’s cousin Mu’awiya also denounced Ali after his was dismissed from his position as governor of Syria. This began the first fitna (656-661): a period of discord among the Muslim community that contributed to the sunni-shia sectarian split. The conflict rhetoric focused on whether ʿUthman had been assassinated justly, whether ʿAlī had been involved, and whether ʿUthmān’s death should be avenged by Muʿāwiyah or by the leading Meccans. The Battle of the Camel 656/36 Opponents to Ali’s rise to power were the prophets widow Aisha, two companions of the prophet named Abu Zubayr and Talha, and members of the inner circle. Abu Zubayr and Aisha left Mecca for Basra to raise an army. Then Ali left Mecca for Kuffa to raise army. These two armies clashed at the Battle of the Camel. Abu Zubayr and Talha were killed supposedly defending Aisha who was on her camel. Tradition holds that Mu‘awiya’s decision to come out openly against ‘Ali only after the battle of the Camel. The Battle of Siffin Muawiyah’s forces fought Ali’s at the Battle of Siffen (prob near Raqaa Iraq). According to Muslim accounts Muawiyah’s forces put pages of the Quran at the ends of their spears which forced the most pious among Ali’s troops to stop fighting and demand a negotiation. This move is often credited to Amr Ibn al-As who led the invasion of Egypt. After the negotiation which was fruitless, a group of Ali’s supporters withdrew from his army and formed a new group called the Kharijites who opposed any arbitration or accommodation with the Umayyads. Consequences of the the Battle of Siffen Ali’s power is steadily eroded as more partisans recognize Muawiyah as the de facto Caliph. The Kharijites plotted a coordinated assasination that would kill both Ali and Muawiyah but the attempt on Muawiyah failed. Hasan ibn Ali later died from an illness Husayn ibn Ali resided at Medina and kept away from power. Muawiyah reorganized the Caliphate and centered it around Syria. Conquest territories were divided into three administrative divisions: Egypt and North Africa; Basra and its eastern territory; Kufa and its Eastern territory. These districts were governed by Amirs who commanded small police forces and were assisted by tribal leaders called ashraf. The state (sultan) run by the Amirs collected taxes and distributed ‘ata to veterans registered on the diwan. Much of the structure of government credited to Ziyad ibn Abu Sufyan who governed Basra. At the remote village level rewards, threats and other inducements were used to get tribal and village leaders to govern for the Caliphate. Caliph or Mulk (Kingship)? One of the critiques of Muawiyah is that he changed rule in the Muslim community from an elected Caliph to a hereditary king (malik) when he appointed his son Yazid as his successor before he died. With the appointment of Yazid Muawiya began the Sufyanid Dynasty. Some scholars point to the centralization of authority and Muawiyah appearance on silver coins as further evidence. The Second Fitna The second fitna was primarily a conflict between the Umayyads and Ibn al- Zubayr, and to a certain extend Husayn ibn Ali who also made a bid for power. When Yazid became caliph both Ibn Zubayr and Husayn refused to recognize him as their ruler. Ibn Zubayr and Husayn were forced to flee from Medina to Mecca when Yazid sent and army to compel them to submit to him. Husayn continued to Kufa, an Alid stronghold but was intercepted at Karbala. During the Battle of Karbala (680) Husayn was set upon by a group of Umayyad soldiers and killed. Revolutions in Kufa during the Second Fitna During the second fitna, a proto Shia group called the Tawwabun (Pennintents) attempted to lead a revolution to avenge Husayn. They were defeated and massacred by the Umayyads at the Battle of ‘Ayn al-Warda in 685 After the defeat of the Tawwabun, there was a new movement in Kufa centered around the ‘Alid lineage. A revolutionary in Kufa named Mukhtar al-Thaqafi led a revolution in the name of Mohammad ibn al-Hanifiyya, who was a son of Ali by Khawla bint Jafar of the Hanafia tribe. Mukhtar’s movement was interesting in that it appropriated religious symbolism from Zoroastrianism and Judaism. They carried a chair into battle that they said had been the chair of ‘Ali. Mukhtar also claimed that Mohammad ibn al-Hanifiyya was the mahdi: a messianic leader who would return to lead the Muslim community before the day of judgement. This is the first recorded usage of the title mahdi. It is not mentioned in the Quran or early hadith. After the death of Mukhtar his movement continued and became known as the Kaysaniyya. They were an early Shia group who traced the lineage of the imamate through ‘Ali’s children with Khwala bind Jafar rather than Fatima. Significance of Mukhtar’s movement Mukhtar’s movement attempted to leverage the support of the muwali in Iraq and Persia. This was the first time muwali had become involved in a political and religious movement. The movement was also a proto-Shi’a movement that sought to replace the Umayyads with leaders from the prophets family. After the death of Mukhtar a new movement called Hashimiyya rallied around his son Abu Hashim (recognized as the second Imam) and absorbed the Kaysaniya. Third Fitna 744-747 CE The Third Fitna begins in the reign of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid II and continues until the reign of the last Umayyad Caliph Marwan II who ruled until 750 CE. Causes: The Qays-Yaman (North South) rivalries, discontent among non Arab populations (especially Persian mawali), Kharijite and Shi’ite separatism. The Umayyad Caliphate never fully recovered from the third fitna and was toppled by the Abbasid revolution just after they “tamed” the disparate groups of revolutionaries. Anti Umayyad Revolts during the Third Fitna Beber revolts in al-Andalus, Maghrib and Ifriqiya 740-43 Abdullah ibn Mu’awiah’s Revolt in Iraq 744 Ibadi (Kharijite) revolts in the Hijaz and Yeman 745-7 Revolts in Khorasan Harith ibn Surrajj 743 Abu Muslim 744 Khorasan was the eastern frontier of the Muslim world and it was protected by local warriors enrolled in the diwan and occasionally contingents from Syria. There was also a small non military Arab population that lived among a large number of Persians who had accepted Islam and become mawali, but still paid the jizya. Overtime the Arab minority became Persified as it mixed with the mawali population of Khurasan. Khorasan had been conquered from Iraq and inherited some of its any Umayyad sentiment and gravitation toward Shi’a and Kharijinte ideologies. From Hashimiya to Abbasid Revolution After the death of Abu Hisham the Hashimiya split into two factions. One faction wanted to support the ‘Alids by restoring the caliphate to a descendant of Ali and Fatima. The other faction rallied around Mohammad ibn Ali who was descended from the prophets uncle Abbas. They became known as the Abbasids. The Abbaids claimed that Abu Hisham designated an Abbasid as his successor. The factions were held together by the idea that they supported “an acceptable one from the house of the Prophet” (al-rida min al Mohammad or ahl al bayt) Around 745 CA the Abbasids sent Abu Muslim to Khorrasan to organize revolutionaries on their behalf. Abu Muslim was a charismatic religious leader who was an Abbasid mawla. He had been been imprisoned by the Umayyads for “unorthodox religious views” and liberated by an Abbasid in Iraq. By the end of 747 he took the provincial capital of Merv and used it as his headquarters from which he directed several armies to secure Khurasan and to drive the Umayyads eastward to Iraq and Syria. Harun al-Rashid had been educated by a Khorasani tutor named Yahya al-Barkmid. He elevated Yahya to the position of vizier and became close friends with his two sons al-Fadil and Ja’far. Rumors circulated that Harun al-Rashid had sexual relationship with Ja’far and that the allowed Ja’far to secretly marry his own sister. It is difficult to know if these rumors impacted Harun al-Rashid’s decision to execute Ja’far in 803 and remove the Barkmid family from power. The Abbasids sponsored the transcription of Greek, Syrac and Persian manuscripts into Arabic. They sponsor scholars who create botanical compendiums of the Islamic World and invited scholars of medicine and other sciences to Baghdad Harun al-Rashid founded the Bayt al Hikma (House of Wisdom) to house his extensive collection of rare books.Later during the Caliphate of al-Ma’mun (9th century) the Bayt al-Hikma functioned as a kind of academy or think tank for scholars from around the Islamic World As we noted the first followers of Ali were the Shi’at Ali or party of Ali during the succession dispute. There were two groups of early Muslims the Ansar and the Muhajirun. Ali was favored by the Ansar. It was agreed that the Caliph should be from the Quraysh tribe. Abu Bakr and Umar created a Caliphate based on sabaq (precedence). Early converts to Islam rather tribal authority Uthman restored the power of tribal authorities and early converts gravitated to Ali after Uthman was murdered. We also see non Arab Muslim mawali gravitate toward Ali and his descendents.  From historian Marshall Non Arab Hodgson Early Converts Muslims with Sabaqa muwali Muhajirin / Ansar The Piety Minded Islamic identity more important than tribal or ethnic distinctions Avoided associations with “worldly” authority Invested in charismatic bond with Ali sealed through oaths of allegiance (walaya). One way to look at the development of Shi’a Islam is to consider the emergence of communal identity - We know that ritual was diverse in the Islamic world: example at the start of prayer do you say the bismillah aloud, quietly or to yourself - Shi’a Muslims would develop distinct ritual practices. Shi’a always say the bismillah Qunut in congregational aloud, they perform the wudu (ritual prayer washing) differently etc. - These ritul differences are taken up by different mosques. Proto Shi’i published pilgrimage guides to friendly mosques 8th century CE / 2nd AH - Friendly mosques become pilgrimage sites Isma’ilis (Seveners) The next division occurred over who should succeed the sixth Imam Jafar al Sadiq Jafar al Sadiq attempted to clarify succession before his death by designating his son Isma’il as the next imam. Isma’il was very popular and admired for his learning. Isma’il died before his father but some people maintained that the Imamate had passed to him. A group of these people claimed that the Imamate should be passed to Isma’ils son Mohammad ibn Isma’il. The Fatimid Caliphate The Isma’ili leader Abu Mohmmad ibn Abdullah Ibn Husayn was born into an anti- Abbasid Isma’ili network in Iran that propagated the idea that Muhammad ibn Isma’il was in the ghayba and would return as the Mahdi to lead the Isma’ili community against the Abbasids. Ibn Husayn first claimed that he led in the name of a “hidden” Mahdi, but then that he himself was the Mahdi. He took the name and laqb: Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah In 909 Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah and the Kutama berbers overthrew the Aghlabids in Tunis. al-Mahidi Bilah established the Shia Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa. Twelvers After the death of Isma’il and then his father Jafar al-Sadiq most Shi’a gravitated to al-Sadiq’s second son, Abd Allah al-Aftah, even though his religious knowledge was questioned. When al-Aftah died just 70 days after his father these followers chose al-Sadiq’s son with another wife as the Imam: Musa al-Kazim There were several issues with succession after Musa al-Kazim. - Abbasid persecution of Shi’a Muslim - Several Imams who died leaving a single infant son as potential heir. Ghayaba Succession issues led the Twelvers to rely on the concept of ghayaba or occultation. In Twelver theology shortly after the death of the 11th imam (Hasan al-Askari) the 12th imam (Mohammad al-Mahdi) went into a minor occultation due to Abbasid threads on his life. He was represented by “agents” who were the earthly representatives of the imam. After the death of the fourth agent the imam entered a period of “major occultation” where he remained in the ghayba but had no representative on earth.