UHDT II Book Compilation 4 July PDF

 School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi Disclaimer: The authors and editors do not accept any responsibility or any liability whatsoever, whether in contract, tort, equity or otherwise for any action taken as a result of information in this report or an...

 School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi Disclaimer: The authors and editors do not accept any responsibility or any liability whatsoever, whether in contract, tort, equity or otherwise for any action taken as a result of information in this report or any error, inadequacy, deficiency, flaw or omission in the information provided by the report. The editors and authors of the papers do not claim any ownership over text/ content that has been referenced or already published. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher or authors, except in the caes of reviewer, who may quote brief passages embodies in critical articles in areview. Published in 2024 by Department of Urban Design School of Planning and Architecture 6B, Indraprastha Estate New Delhi 110002 India Printed in New Delhi Seminar Co-Ordinator: Dr. Vandini Mehta Acknowledgement Visiting Faculty B. Arch, M.S. Arch. (UC Berkeley), PhD (Urban Studies, SPA-D) Ar. Shiza Christie Assistant Professor B. Arch, M. Arch (Urban Design, SPA-D) Prof. Manu Mahajan Head of Department of Urban Design, SPA-D B. Arch, M. Arch (Urban Design), MSc in Development & Planning (UCL, UK) This book is a result of relentless dedication and intellectual curiosity of the Cover Design and Graphics: entire batch of Masters of Urban Design. Their unwavering ferment, dedication Ar. Nibhrati Soni and exploration of the Najafgarh Canal’s pre-independence era form the core Ar. Roshni PR of this collection. Editing and Compilation: We are profoundly indebted to Dr. Vandini Mehta, who skillfully guided the Ar. Shiza Christie (Co-ordinator) seminar on Urban History and Development Theory, fostering a space for Ar. Akhilesh Dandge critical thinking and exploration. We also extend our heartfelt gratitude to Ar. Ar. Nibhrati Soni Shiza Christie for her invaluable assistance throughout the seminar. Ar. Roshni PR A special thanks goes to Prof. Manu Mahajan, Head of Department, Urban Design, for his unwavering support and encouragement, which served as a vital Batch 2023-25 catalyst for this book’s fruition. We are confident that this book will serve as an erudite resource, fostering a deeper understanding of the Najafgarh’s historical significance and its enduring connection to the tapestry of Delhi’s development. 2023-25 Batch Department of Urban Design School of Planning and Architecture New Delhi 5  FOREWORD The Najafgarh waterway, a part of the rain-fed Sahibi River originating from Rajasthan, has for centuries been instrumental in shaping the pre- colonial and colonial landscapes of Delhi. This book presents a unique compilation of research work done in the Urban History seminar, illustrating the water body’s role and significance in the Indian pre-independence era. Spanning over a period of four months, the studies delve into various facets surrounding Najafgarh. First paper dives into the environmental and ecological transformations of the Canal, and the human intervention over time which shaped its characteristics, functions and ecological value. Second paper encompasses the political and power paradigm surrounding the water body, and how major historical events perceived the canal as a tool of defence and control. Final paper analyses the socio-economics and the vibrant communities thriving along the banks, revealing how they utilised its resources for agriculture, transportation, and cultural practices. This book challenges our understanding of this crucial waterway and compels us to comprehend it not just as a source of water or a drain, but as a dynamic ecosystem intricately woven into the political, social, and economic fabric of Delhi’s past. This compilation can be a valuable resource for architects, urban designers, planners, historians, water management specialists and anyone interested in the environmental and social history of India. 7 Contents 1 Ecology and Geography THE SHIFTING PULSE OF SAHIBI 11 Mapping the Transformation of Sahibi River to Najafgarh Nala Kevin Gatorwala|Kiran Prakash | Lavanya Rajput | Nibhrati Soni | Rohini Soni | Sajal Patidar | Shrutkirti Bhelkar |Yash Patil 2 History and Politics Impressions of Power on Water 31 Resources The effect of 1857 Uprising and 1911 Coronation Durbar on the Najafgarh Canal Anuvinda Dinesh | Aparupa Saha | Chetna Garg |Kritika Lakhe | Mughil | Prathamesh Patil | Rahul Shriram | Roshni PR 3 Society and Economy From fields to Fortune 53 Unveiling the socio-economic pulse of the Najafgarh Canal Akhilesh Dandge| Bhartendu Deo| Chirag Das | Himanshu Chauhan| Saurav Chatterjee| Sharan Chatterjee| Sonali Kaushal Ecology and Geography 1 THE SHIFTING PULSE OF SAHIBI Mapping the Transformation of Sahibi River to Najafgarh Nala Nibhrati Soni | Lavanya Rajput | Kevin Gatorwala | Rohini Soni |Kiran Prakash | Shrutkirti Bhelkar | Sajal Patidar |Yash Patil. The Sahibi, once a ribbon bright, A silver thread in sunlight, Flowed freely, strong, like a lifeblood vein, Nurturing life on a fertile plain. But human hands, with purpose grand, Transformed the land. Canals were carved, for a thirsty quest, And altered nature’s gentle crest. An earthquake’s wrath, a sudden shock, Birthed Najafgarh, a mirrored block. The river sighed, its course sway, A tribute paid to a bygone day. Now Najafgarh, a shadow falls, A remnant stream, a memory recalls. Though choked and slow, the current calmy flows, A whisper of the life it knows. 11  Ecology and Geography Introduction The transformation of natural water bodies due to human intervention is a global phenomenon with reflective implications for ecosystems and communities. One such example is the Sahibi River in Delhi, which has undergone significant alterations over the years, culminating in its current form as the Najafgarh Nala. This evolution highlights the intricate relationship between human interventions and environmental outcomes, underscoring the evolving needs of human civilization and Abstract the demands placed on the environment as societies change and grow. Delving into the historical evolution of the Sahibi River and its transformation into the Najafgarh Nala, offers insights into how urbanization and agricultural expansion have shaped these changes. This This research delves into the ecological and environmental impacts of the transformation of the Sahibi understanding is crucial for appreciating the broader implications for River into the Najafgarh Naala, focusing on the period from 1807 to 1947 in Delhi. The primary local ecology. research question seeks to understand the underlying reasons for the ecological shifts and subsequent alterations experienced by the Sahibi River during this time frame and their broader impacts. It also The main research question guiding this study is: How did the aims to explore the specific factors that contributed to these alterations, the environmental consequences, and the intricate connection between the Sahibi River and the Najafgarh Naala, along with the environmental and ecological shifts of the Sahibi River (Najafgarh implications for the surrounding areas. Furthermore, the study sheds light on the historical evolution Nala) in Delhi change from 1807 to 1947, under various rulers and of the Sahibi River, offering insights into how human interventions have influenced its physical administrations, and what were the implications on its natural geography? characteristics, functions, and ecological value over time. By examining the changes in the river’s form To address this, the study will investigate the political and social factors and function, the research also seeks to understand their effects on flood patterns and the overall responsible for spatial manifestations and interventions along the environmental landscape. The findings of this research are expected to be instrumental in informing Najafgarh Nala, as well as the impact of the formation of Najafgarh future planning and management strategies concerning the Najafgarh Naala and its surrounding Jheel and repeated floodings on the Sahibi water system, leading to its ecosystems. Understanding the ecological and environmental impacts of such transformations is crucial conversion into the Najafgarh Nala. for developing sustainable approaches to river management and urban development, particularly in rapidly growing cities like Delhi. The objectives of this research are threefold: To examine the historical evolution of the Najafgarh Canal’s Keywords: Historical significance, Colonial hydrology, Flooding, Ecologically fragile perception under different political regimes and the consequent 13  consequent modifications implemented along its course. Historical Waterworks in Delhi: Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography To assess the effects of the Yamuna River’s changing course on the Sahibi River and its flooding patterns, and to pinpoint significant The story of Sahibi dates back to Harappan civilisation, where there transformation sites while analyzing the impacts of geographical are presence of numerous Harappan sites along it..For instance, Stone conditions that influenced these alterations. age tools discovered from the terrace of Jhirka-Cho, a seasonal nullah To evaluate the degradation of the Najafgarh water course resulting descending from the Aravalli Range, which also forms a channel from human intervention. connected to the Sahibi Nadi, provided fresh insights into human evolution on the subcontinent. These tools hint at the possibility of early By understanding these ecological processes, we can better comprehend human rock shelters in the area, belonging to the Paleolithic phase, which the broader impacts of human activities on the environment and develop hints that during that period, the river likely served as a vital source for more sustainable approaches to land use and water management. This human settlements. (Dikshit, n.d.) study seeks to disentangle the complex interplay between human actions and environmental changes, shedding light on the transformation of the Also, excavations at Siswal, Mitathal, and Banawali reveal the earliest Sahibi River into the Najafgarh Nala and its broader implications for the phases of the proto-history of the region. Also there has been traces of region’s ecology. Sahibi found in Mahabharata, where Bhargava identifies Sahibi as one of the significant rivers. There is a myhtological tale which states that Sahibi, Introduction to Sahibi River: originated from the tears of Divya Pauloma, flows past Chyavanasrama (Dhosi). The tale portrays Sahibi as a sacred stream with numerous holy The literature on the Sahibi River provides a comprehensive exploration sites along its course, suggesting its importance in ancient times as well. of its historical, geographical, ecological, and cultural importance. (Dikshit, n.d.) Scholars have linked its origins near Manoharpur in Rajasthan to the ancient Drishadvati River of the Vedic period, highlighting its deep- Facing a dry climate and a growing seat of power, the Sultanate and rooted significance in Indian civilization. Evidence of Indus Valley Mughal empire initiated several waterworks in Delhi. Civilization sites along its banks further reinforces its historical relevance. The Sahibi River originates in the eastern slopes of the Saiwar Protected Sultanate Period (1206-1526 C.E.) Forest (PF) hills in Sikar District, enters Jaipur district near the foot of these hills, and after initially flowing southeast and east turns The formation of WYC: northeastwards near Shahpura and continues further till it exits the State to enter Haryana. (Rao, n.d.). Then it flows through Haryana before During the Sultanate period in Delhi, the city’s geographical layout and meeting the Yamuna River in Delhi, where it’s known as the Najafgarh water management were profoundly influenced by its unique topography, drain. Its tributaries, the Masani, Dohan, and Sota, played a vital role in notably the presence of a ridge running through its landscape. Strategically the past, with the Krishnavati even having a channelized section called positioned, this ridge not only provided a natural barrier but also played the Outfall Drain No. 8. a crucial role in water management and urban development. (Wescoat, The Basin extends over parts of the Alwar, Jaipur, and Sikar districts. The 2014). Delhi’s ridge served as a watershed, capturing runoff from small total catchment area of the Basin is 4607.9 sqkm. Historical accounts watersheds in the surrounding ridges, thus shaping the city’s water shed light on the geological evolution of the region, with events like systems. The Sultanate cities and waterworks were strategically aligned the formation of Najafgarh Jheel during the Mughal period shaping the along this ridge to harness its runoff efficiently. This positioning allowed landscape. (Rao, n.d.) the cities to control waters, entry roads, and upland vantage points, 14 15  enhancing their defensive capabilities. Urbanization during the Sultanate Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography period focused on areas along the ridge, particularly the junction between the southern and central ridges, which became preferred locations for Saraswati urban development and water control. Delhi’s urban waterworks developed in earnest during the early thirteenth century. As a result rulers like Sultan Iltutmish, Sultan Alauddin Khilji, and Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq made significant contributions to water Rohtak infrastructure in Delhi. Sultan Iltutmish initiated the construction of Drishadwati the first major tank, Hauz-i Shamsi, in 1231 C.E., situated in southwest Delhi. Subsequent rulers like Sultan Alauddin Khilji enhanced these Najafgarh Jheel New Delhi structures with maintenance and architectural additions. (Wescoat, 2014) Bindavas Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq furthered the advancements by authorizing Gurugram Sanctuary the construction of the West Yamuna Canal, a vast irrigation project. The canal was designed to divert water from the Yamuna River to irrigate Rewari the agricultural lands in the region, primarily around the fortress town of Hisar, which is northwest of Delhi. The primary aim of the West Yamuna Canal project was to bring arid and semi-arid regions under cultivation by providing a reliable water source for agriculture. This initiative involved channelizing watercourses and constructing canals to Sota Nadi Sahibi Nadi distribute water efficiently to farmlands. The canal system was a testament Sikar Saiwar PF to Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq’s focus on infrastructure development and Alwar water management, which were essential for the economic prosperity and stability of his empire. The construction of the West Yamuna Canal significantly contributed to the expansion of agricultural land and the improvement of livelihoods in the region during the Sultanate period. Additionally, he undertook restoration efforts, such as those for the Sahakambari Jheel Jaipur Suraj Kund tank. He also engaged in garden-building and conservation endeavors, reflecting the ongoing evolution and refinement of water management practices in the region. (Wescoat, 2014) Source: Author Formation of Najafgarh Jheel: Figure 1: The larger system of the Sahibi River-its origins, linkage to the ancient Drishadvati River and its journey in Rajasthan, Haryana, and ultimately meeting the Yamuna River in Delhi as the Najafgarh drain. In 1505, a significant earthquake struck Agra and the northwest region of India, registering an intensity of MM XII. This seismic event led to the formation of a jheel, called as Najafgarh jheel. This caused a reduction in the flow of the Sahibi nadi, a tributary of Yamuna on the Delhi side. 16 17  Origin of Sahibi can be traced to the eastern slopes of the Saiwar The construction of the Phoolchaddar Aqueduct, which intersected the Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography Protected Forest (PF) hills in Sikar District, which enters Jaipur district Sahibi River with the Western Yamuna Canal (WYC), likely served near the foot of these hills, and after initially flowing southeast and east multiple purposes, one of which was to prevent the mixing of alkaline turns northeastwards near Shahpura and continues further till it exits the water from the Sahibi with the water of the WYC. By keeping these State to enter Haryana and then to Delhi. (Griffiths, 1857) waters separated, the aqueduct would have helped maintain the quality However after the formation of Jheel, Sahibi started to drain out its of water supplied to Shahjahanabad for various purposes, including water in Jheel. The jheel derived its name from Mirza Najaf Khan, the irrigation, urban water supply, and other uses. commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army. (Rao, n.d.) This argument is also strengthened by an excerpt of around 1850’s, where Mr. C. Gubbins wrote an account of the manufacture of salt in Mughal Period (1526-1720 C.E.) this pargana. He wrote: “There are three villages (Sudrana, Mundoopur and Sydpur) at the end of Najafgarh Jheel where salt of a very superior During the Mughal Period (1526–1857 C.E.), rulers demonstrated a keen description is manufactured. It is called Sooltanpooree and is preferred interest in water management and infrastructure development. Babur, to that produced in the neighbouring villages of Sultanpur belonging to who ruled from 1527 to 1530 C.E., established a riverfront urban pattern the Nawab of Jhajjar.” (Sachdeva, 1970) in Agra, setting the tone for Mughal water management practices. Humayun initiated the construction of Dinpanah (Old fort), a riverfront “The strip of land where it is made is a hollow between two sand hills capital near Delhi, a project continued by Sher Shah Sur during his terminating in the Jheel of Najafgarh, the water is drawn from the wells reign from 1540 to 1545 C.E. Akbar, from 1556 to 1605 C.E., furthered and reposes in pans lined with mortar 6 inches deep and 20 feet squares, water infrastructure by renovating and expanding systems like the West and which are built in sets of 8 and 10 different levels, the water as it Yamuna Canal and constructing bridges and forts with water features. evaporates is successively emptied into the lowest pan. The salt settles in (Wescoat, 2014) large crystals and is stored in pits dug in some mound close at hand, until its superflous moisture is considered fit for exportation. Begam Samru Transformation of WYC: used to realize from this source 6,000 Rupees annually.” (Sachdeva, 1970) Shah Jahan, reigning from 1628 to 1658 C.E., left a lasting legacy in End of Mughal Period and Rise of British Rule(1720-1947 C.E.): Delhi by establishing Shahjahanabad, the Mughal capital, complete with comprehensive water systems encompassing rainwater harvesting, wells, In 1803, the British entered Delhi following the 2nd Anglo-Maratha War, stepwells, moats, and canals. The Western Yamuna Canal was transformed marking a pivotal moment in its colonial history. (Wescoat, 2014) to serve multiple purposes including agriculture, transportation, and urban water supply in Shajahanabad, while the Shah Nahr Canal extended As per the book, PURATATTVA- Exploration of Sahibi and Gazetteer from Safedon to Shahjahanabad, intersecting the Sahibi (presently known of Delhi, 1884, topography of the present Gurgaon district presented as Najafgarh Jhil drain) at the ‘Phoolchaddar’ Aqueduct, illustrating considerable variety. Two rocky outcrops represented the continuation the Mughal commitment to innovative water management solutions. of the Aravalli chain, cut through the flat plain from south to north. (Wescoat, 2014) The origin of the Sahibi River from the Saiwar Hills, They were bare. The western range divides the northern plains into two which is in close proximity to Sambhar Lake suggests that its water might natural divisions. Eastward the valley in- between the two ridges was have some alkaline properties, given the geological characteristics of wide and open through- out. Below the escarpment of the eastern ridge the region, which posed challenges for irrigation due to its potentially an alluvial level extended unbroken upto the river. The entire drainage harmful effects on soil and crops. (Rao, n.d.) of the district was controlled by Yamuna and Sahibi. Sahibi is a powerful 18 19  stream that rises from a point near Shahpur nearly 14 km. south of Kot- Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography Qasim in district Jaipur. A few kilometers north of Bahror the combined streams of Sahibi and Sota-nala entered the alluvial tract of Gurgaon district. In these lower reaches the river flows for about 70 km. receiving waters of Indori-nala near Pataudi and Badshahi-nala, further north. (Dikshit, n.d.) Beyond a few kilometres north of Pataudi, the course of the river is not well-defined. It extended in two directions i.e. north-west and north. The latter course joins Yamuna via Najafgarh jheel and Drain no. 6, While the former links it with Jhajjar depression and Drain no. 8. which in turn also joins Yamuna. (Dikshit, n.d.) As per Gazetteer of Delhi, 1884, Sahibi is a tributary of Yamuna, merging with it on its right bank near Delhi. This expanse is a vast alluvial tract in the form of a depression which streches from Najafgarh in Delhi at the south-west, to near Rohtak in the north and Sonepat in the north-east forming a triangular depression. It is believed that this relict landscape evolved as a result of dichotamic pattern of distributaries initially and then its subsequent dessication. This suggests that the creation of this depression is subsequent to the creation of distributaries. (Gazetteer, 1884) In gazeteer of Delhi, 1884, there are two other streams of importance: the one is the depression by which the drainage of part of the Rohtak district joins this district at Mundela Kalan and passing Ujwah and Pindwala joins the main jhil at Chaola: the other is the Sahibi Nala which passes through the Gurgaon district having its head waters far off in Alwar. The main jhil receives, too, a few petty streams from the local hills. Also the gazeteer states that, the area which drained into this Najafgarh Jhil is estimated at some 3,000 square miles: in years gone by an area of more than 80 square miles had been known to be submerged by the floods. (Gazetteer, 1884) Rivers Sahibi and Banganga used to flood the area around Farrukhnagar and Bharatpur respectively, causing great Source: Author problems for the inhabitants and loss of crops, etc. This phenomenon of Figure 2: The first map shows the expanse of triangular depression between Rohtak, Najafgarh and Sonipat. flooding can be linked to the earliest courses of the Yamuna, which show The map below shows two important streams - the depression; and the Sahibi Nala passing through an apparent link with the dying traces of the Sahibi and the Banganga different districts rivers, indicative of their being once the tributaries of the Yamuna River. (Singh, 2006) 20 21  The sudden and faster migration of the perennial Yamuna resulted Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography in the profile being in equilibrium with its seasonal tributaries namely Sahibi and Banganga. These tributaries could not cope with the pace of the main river migration and thus were forced to abandon their waters in the older flood plains of the Yamuna inundating a vast area around Farrukhnagar and Bharatpur respectively. (Singh, 2006) This caused an imbalance which can be one of the reasons for the occurrence of floods in the Sahibi and Banganga rivers. The magnitude of floods is accentuated due to the flat nature of older flood plains on which these rivers spread their water loads after losing their identity. Hence several floods can be observed in this region. Heavy floods were recorded in 1845 and 1873 in Gazeteer of Delhi, 1884. (Gazetteer, 1884) Due to this change, it may be assumed that the volume of water was more than the soil could absorb and was the cause of much flood, sickness and fever; so it was determined to cut a channel, now known as the Jhil Drain, to run the surplus water into the Jamna. This work was carried out in 1838 under the direction of Captain (afterwards Sir Henry) David. This drain began about Chaola where it was little more than a petty ditch and passed via Kakraula, Hashtsal and Basai, by a deep cut through the high lying Bangar into the Jamna at Wazirabad. (Griffiths, 1857) However, possibly it didnt go as it was planned , since the Gazetteer mentions that due to the cut, the water started to drawn off too quickly. Hence for floods to be extensive,the Britishers by means of regulators fixed-in the channel. This led to flood an area of twenty square miles and to draw off the water in time for cultivation. So British officials started to work on building up the regulators, -Captain Durand then proposed to construct a regulator bridge dam on the west side of Basei-to have a regulator for the Badshahpur nulla, and an escape for canal’s surplus water, for use in dry years. This arrangement near the Source: Author ‘Phool chaddar” was the outcome of the scheme - The regulation of the Figure 3: The map showing location of Phoolchaddar Aqueduct and the location of regulating dam built by Britisers. Also the map shows ol channel and New escape Route, during end of 19th century. Base map - Delji Badshahpur nulla appeared to have been given up as impracticable while Guide Map 1926 the construction of an escape on the west side of the canal was opposed by the Superintending Engineer on the ground of the silt which would be passed down the canal toward Delhi instead of being taken off higher up in Karnál. (Gazetteer, 1884) (Griffiths, 1857) 22 23  In 1857, the Siege of Delhi saw the British securing victory at Najafgarh, were carried out efficiently and in accordance with established regulations. Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography leading to the enlargement of drainage systems and the termination of the Act’s provisions for compensation in cases of damage to canal works the Mughal Dynasty. (Griffiths, 1857) would have been relevant in instances where the Najafgarh Nallah or its associated structures were affected by offenses or negligence. This would An account in Delhi Past and Present ,By Herbert Charles Fanshawe have provided a mechanism for accountability and restitution, ensuring states that during the war of Mutiny, 1857 - “The Pulchaddar aqueduct, that damages to the watercourse were appropriately addressed. a work of great solidity, which brought the canal water into the city across the Najafgarh Jhil cut, and by which horsemen could pass to our Furthermore, the Act’s provisions for the supply of water through rear, was also blown up. By this latter measure no water could enter the existing watercourses would have implications for the distribution of city through the canal, a matter of little moment, however, to the in- water resources, including those conveyed through the Najafgarh Nallah. habitants of a town situated on the banks of a river, and in which there The procedures outlined in the Act would have facilitated the regulated are many wells.” (Fanshawe, 1902) distribution of water to users, ensuring equitable access and efficient utilization of this vital resource. An excerpt from THE DIARY AND LETTERS OF ARTHUR MOFFATT LANG,1857 TO 1859, states “At 4 p.m. Gough and I rode By 1884, the Najafgarh Jheel covered an extensive area of approximately out with two Sowars for a reconnaissance down the canal. We rode 220 sq. km, indicating the scale of water management efforts in the region. through water up to our horses’ girths to the Pembari bridge, then rode Delhi’s historical streams underwent significant transformation during down the opposite side of the canal to the Aqueduct : the canal used to colonial city-building initiatives, repurposed as circulation routes and be carried by an aqueduct over the Najafgarh jhil cut so that its waters roadways, often diverted or buried to suit urban development agendas. supplied Delhi and the Palace canals, and flowed between the Palace This repurposing of streams served as a means of social exclusion, with and Salimgarh walls into the Jumna: but we broke the Aqueduct and so green spaces and monument parks often acting as barriers between elite from that point to the Jumna you must imagine the canal empty. The enclaves and marginalized communities. other canal is not an irrigation canal, but a drainage one, and carries off the waters of the great Najafgarh jhil: this Jhil last year, during the very Analysis of historical maps, such as the “Delhi Province” map from great rains, covered 150 square miles!. This Jhil Cut protects our rear 1915 retrieved from the National Archives of India, reveals the gradual beautifully. It was a beautiful evening as we rode down the canal.” (Lang, decline of Najafgarh Jheel, once a vast lake that transformed into 1857-59) swampland over time. This transformation is depicted from locations including Chhawla in the east, Dhansa in the west, Raota in the south, Subsequent years saw a focus on flood mitigation. In 1865, the British and Mundela Khurd in the north, indicating significant changes in the government initiated drainage projects by excavating the Najafgarh landscape of the present-day South-West district of Delhi. Also, in 1903 Nala, marked a significant development, expanding to 51 km within NCT Coronation Darbar Park had an embankment all around to keep water Delhi. This channel renamed the Najafgarh Nala, Cut or Drain, facilitated out. In 1911 Coronation Durbar of Britishers set up along the banks of faster drainage of the Jheel.. (DLF Foundation, 2017) The Northern Najafgarh Drain outside Shahjanabad, to declare Delhi as the capital. India canal and Drainage Act 1873 provisions for the construction, (Gazetteer, 1912) maintenance, and operation of canals and drainage works align with the historical initiatives described above, such as the excavation of the Najafgarh Nallah during the colonial period. This legislative framework would have provided the legal basis for such projects, ensuring that they 24 25  Conclusion: References Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography In conclusion, the Sahibi River stands as a testament to the intricate 1. Mapped, I., 2020. India Mapped. [Online]Available at: https://www.indiamapped. com/rivers-in-india/sahibi-river/[Accessed March 2024]. relationship between human civilizations and the natural environment, 2. McGinn, P., 2009. CAPITAL, DEVELOPMENT, AND CANAL IRRIGATION as evidenced through its historical, geographical, ecological, and cultural IN COLONIAL INDIA. s.l.:s.n. significance. Originating in the ancient lands of Rajasthan, possibly 3. Rekha Todarwal, 2022. Flora of Aravalli Range in Rajasthan. IJARASEM, 9(5), p. tracing its roots to the Vedic period as the Drishadvati River, the Sahibi 10. River has witnessed the rise and fall of empires, shaping landscapes and 4. Ritu, n.d. Millenium Post. [Online] Available at: https://www.millenniumpost.in/ amp/opinion/death-of-a-river-424962 [Accessed 27-02-2024 February 2024]. societies along its course. Throughout history, from the Sultanate period 5. Delhi, G. o. H. a. N., 2021. Najafgarh Jheel, s.l.: A framework integrated environment to the Mughal era and into the colonial rule of the British, the Sahibi plan jointly Submitted by gov. of Haryana and NCR. River played a pivotal role in water management and urban development. 6. DLF Foundation, I. &. I., 2017. Transforming The Najafgarh Basin, A White Paper Rulers and administrators undertook ambitious projects to harness its Based On The Workshop, Gurgaon: DLF Foundation, INTACH & IWP. 7. Rao, R., 6th, 2020. Najafgarh Jheel: Story of a forgotten river, s.l.: Gaon-Connection. waters, from the construction of tanks and canals to the creation of 8. HARYANA, G. O. (1883-84). Gazetteer of Delhi District. Punjab Government. drainage systems like the Najafgarh Jheel. However, with the passage 9. Kumar, R. (2016 ). Chapter 1- Introduction. Archaeological settlement pattern of of time and the demands of urbanization, the landscape surrounding the lower Sahibi basin from earliest times to the late medieval period. the Sahibi River underwent significant transformation. Flood mitigation 10. Moudgil, M. (2016). State of India’s Rivers. Rajasthan: India Rivers Week, 2016. efforts, drainage projects, and colonial city-building initiatives altered the 11. Rao, R. (2020, November 16). Sahibi Nadi: How a river was killed. Retrieved March 5, 2024, from Down to Earth: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/pollution/ natural course of the river, leading to the decline of once-vast water sahibi-nadi-how-a-river-was-killed-74254 bodies like the Najafgarh Jheel. Today, as we reflect on the historical 12. Wescoat, J. (2014). CONSERVING URBAN WATER HERITAGE. Massachusetts. journey of the Sahibi River, it serves as a reminder of the delicate 13. Cherrian, D. (2004). Pairing Mega Events and Hydrological Systems for Urban balance between human progress and environmental sustainability. The Sustainability. 14. Nema, A., & Agrawal, D. (n.d.). WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN lessons learned from its rich history can guide us in our contemporary NAJAFGARH DRAINAGE BASIN. efforts towards responsible water management, ecological conservation, 15. Rao, R. (2020). Najafgarh jheel to nala — How Delhi and Gurugram ruined their and the preservation of cultural heritage. In essence, the story of the second-largest waterbody. The Print. Sahibi River is not merely a chronicle of the past but a living narrative 16. Geohydrological Implications Of Flood Water Management In Sahibi River Basin that continues to shape the present and inspire the future stewardship of In South Haryana By A.S. Parmar 17. Sachdeva, K., 1970. SOME INDUSTRIES OF DELHI TERRITORY (1803- our natural resources. 1857). s.l.:s.n. 26 27  ANNEXURE A1 ANNEXURE A3 Ecology and Geography Ecology and Geography Source: (The City of Delhi before the Seige, 1858) Source: (The City of Delhi before the Seige, 1858) Description: The City of Delhi before the Siege; This engraving from the Illustrated London Description: The map shows Canal of Najafgarh carrying water from Najafgarh jheel to News is a detailed depiction of the walled-city of Delhi before the Uprising of 1857. Jamna, passing by Cantonment area. Bounded by the fort-walls on all sides, the walled city with its landmarks, palaces, havelis and bustling streets are shown. The river Yamuna runs on the left corner along the fort walls. ANNEXURE A4 ANNEXURE A2 Source: (The Yamuna River Project, n.d.) Source: ( Illustrirte Zeitung (Illustrated Newspaper), Leipzig, no. 750, 14 November, 1857) Description: Delhi and Vicinity, City Plan, 1963; The existence of Najafgarh jheel has Description: The illiustration depicts a historical view of Delhi during the Indian been recorded as far back as 1807. The Najafgarh jheel used to be an immense wetland Revellion of 1857, where the British military camps are on high ground at a strategic lying in Gurugram and Delhi. It was fed by the Sahibi river and floodwaters from location. The bridge is the connecting link to the city which was blown during the war Gurugram, Rewari, Jhajjar and north-west Delhi. to restrict the escape. 28 29 History and Politics Impressions of Power on 2 Water Resources The effect of 1857 Uprising and 1911 Coronation Durbar on the Najafgarh Canal Anuvinda Dinesh | Aparupa Saha | Chetna Garg |Kritika Lakhe | Mughil | Prathamesh Patil | Rahul Shriram | Roshni PR Born of mountains kissed by rain’s embrace, She roams with fervor through monsoon’s grace. Messages she carries from land to land, Becoming life’s source, in her gentle hand. Amidst crops, fields of green unfurled, Settlements arose, in nature’s swirl. Yet amid this growth, malice took its stand, And politics unfolded at her command. Beside her bank, humanity finds its home, Each seeking to claim her for their own. Yet in ownership’s grasp, political tides rise, Selfishness prevailing, amidst earth’s cries. Within her realm, politics whirl and twine, a drama divine. Hence, she becomes worlds first Dictator. 31  History and Politics Introduction In the Indian subcontinent, waterways have always been instrumental in the spatial manifestation of political agendas, reflecting the exercise of authority by different regimes. One such waterway of significant historical and political importance is the Najafgarh canal which is located in the vicinity of Delhi and saw major transformations under colonial Abstract rule. The spatial configuration of the canal allowed the colonial rulers Historically, the Indian subcontinent has responded to the natural resources with reverence. The Sahibi to exert control over vital water resources, thereby consolidating their river (present day Najafgarh canal) flowing from Rajasthan and Haryana, forms the largest watershed authority over the local populace and establishing a visible symbol of of Delhi and has been one such natural water resource. With the decline of Mughal power and the colonial governance. Two pivotal political events in India’s history, the rise of the British East India Company, the canal saw many interventions of land appropriation First War of Independence in 1857 and the Delhi Durbar of 1911 offer and infrastructural development. The key event of the Uprising of 1857 saw the canal become a tool illuminating insights into the colonial government’s utilisation of the of defence and resulted in the establishment of the British Raj which thereby brought many policies Najafgarh canal as a means of asserting their authority and marking their to control the canal. The Coronation Durbar of 1911 was the final blow to its fate and saw major presence. spatial and infrastructural changes along the canal. Through this example of Sahibi river the research aims to study how water has always been a key component for the manifestation of political agendas The First War of Independence in 1857, often regarded as a seminal by different rulers, leaving an impression of the exercise of their control. It aims to enquire about the spatial and political changes along the Najafgarh canal in the context of two important political moment in India’s struggle against British colonial rule, witnessed the events - The Uprising of 1857 and The Delhi Durbar 1911 and study the political agendas that led strategic positioning of British troops along the canal, effectively utilising to those changes. The study takes reference from diverse literature including research papers, academic its geographical features to quell the uprising and maintain colonial texts to official documents, books, articles, maps, gazetteers, and settlement reports of Delhi, with an control. Similarly, the Delhi Durbar of 1911, a grand imperial spectacle aim to conduct an in-depth analysis to establish intricate links and decode the impact of these two held to commemorate the coronation of King George V as Emperor historical events. It pieces together the socio-political landscape of the two events, tracing the evolution of of India, provided another opportunity for the colonial administration governance strategies, ideological frameworks and their spatial manifestations on the Najafgarh canal. to showcase their power and authority. The spatial configuration of the Through the course of study, it becomes evident that colonial rulers used water as a resource to be Najafgarh canal likely played a role in the planning and execution of consumed for their benefit, be it for revenue generation, for defence or for sanitation improvements. the Durbar, serving as a backdrop for the elaborate ceremonies and The political moves, policies and spatial changes along the Najafgarh canal all point to the changing processions that symbolised British supremacy in India. These events perspectives of the political rulers and help us understand how water has always been a reflection of the changing socio-political paradigms in the historical timeline of any region. are paramount in understanding the spatial manifestation of political agendas and the exercise of control by colonial rulers through the Keywords: Najafgarh canal; Colonial Politics; Political History; Development Policies; Colonial manipulation of hydraulic infrastructure. hydrology 33  Furthermore, the research aims to analyse the British governmental policies Najafgarh canal and the changing regimes History and Politics History and Politics surrounding the Najafgarh canal that followed these political events. These policies encompassed a range of initiatives, including irrigation The beginning of Commodification of Najafgarh Canal projects, land reclamation efforts, and infrastructure development, all of which underscored the colonial administration’s utilitarian approach to In the Indian subcontinent, waterways have always been instrumental in water management while also serving as mechanisms for exerting control the spatial manifestation of political agendas, reflecting the exercise of over the local populace. By tracing shifts in perspectives and objectives authority by different regimes. Delhi, a seat of power for centuries, has concerning the management of the canal, we can gain insights into taken advantage of its natural setting nested between the ridge and the broader changes in colonial governance and administrative priorities. river. Its water resources have always been exploited and appropriated for different uses under different political rulers. These policies reflect not only the utilitarian value of water resources but also the colonial administration’s evolving strategies for maintaining During the Mughal era, water was a revered entity appropriated as political control and advancing economic interests. Thus, the historical a symbol of exuberant luxury. Najafgarh basin, a major watershed significance of the Najafgarh canal extends beyond its utilitarian function spanning across Delhi also saw many interventions. This water system is as a waterway to encompass its role as a symbol of political authority and an extension of the Sahibi river originating from Rajasthan and joining colonial dominance. By exploring how the colonial government utilised Yamuna at Delhi. This water system underwent many changes the spatial configuration of the canal during key political events and after the advent of the Islamic rulers and especially Imperial Britain in analysing shifts in policy perspectives over time, we can gain a deeper India. Until then, canal irrigation was prevalent. This was because of the understanding of the complex interplay between water infrastructure, topography of the region where irrigation by natural means was difficult. political authority, and colonial governance in India. Planned waterworks were initiated to bring water for the royalty like Ali Mardan canal and Nahr-I-Bihist. This study seeks to shed light on the multifaceted ways in which water has shaped political landscapes and influenced the exercise of A canal thirty kos long that had been dug in the fourteenth century power throughout history by interrogating historical events and policy by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq was repaired by Shahjahan during the developments related to the Najafgarh canal, the aim of the research construction of the new capital and it was further extended by another is to investigate how the Najafgarh canal was an asset for the colonial 30 taws to flow through the town, palace and Bazaars. The canal was government to assert their political power during the two key events in renamed as Nahr-i Bihist. It was also known as Ali Mardan Khan canal, the political history of Delhi - Uprising of 1857 and Coronation Durbar after the man who took up its repair. When it was repaired by him, a in 1911. The key objectives of the study are to understand how the channel from Hansi and Hissar was excavated to the north-western two key events triggered a change in the spatial politics along the canal, suburbs of the city (Ataullah, 2006). Ali Mardan Khan during the reign investigate the policies introduced by the British and their spatial and of Shahjahan, integrated the Western Yamuna Canal with another canal infrastructural effects on the Najafgarh Canal and understand how the brought in from Sirmaur, (Chauhan, Ram, 2022) the location of which British asserted their power through change in land use along the canal matches with today’s Najafgarh Canal. He also constructed an aqueduct and the shift of its control. of five arches (162 feet long and 24 feet wide) to bridge the drain carrying overflow water from the Najafgarh Jhil (Ataullah, 2006) which came to be known as Pul chaddor. By 1807, the development of Delhi City was concentrated in the cities 34 35  on the East of Aravalli Ridge. Only a few settlements and Sarais existed History and Politics History and Politics west of the Ridge. The Najafgarh Jheel drained into the Saebee Nalla in the west and eventually moved towards Yamuna. Taking the lack of development on the western side as an opportunity, the British had already started to appropriate land in Delhi during the decline of the Mughal Empire (Hosaragar, 2001). With the growing power of East India Company, the hydrological landscape saw a shift in attitude which resulted in policies that brought change in land use around water, creation and alteration of infrastructure and commodification of resources. The British brought in their own contribution to the canal system after 1817 which was a significant addition to canal infrastructure. This included construction of reservoirs and irrigationchannels for water supply. (GOI,1856). In 1824, the Town Duties Committee was established. The concept proposed the imposition of direct taxes as well as the allocation of town duties for local improvements (Parthasarthy, 1990). The cantonment had been moved outside the walls in 1828 (Parthasarthy, 1990) to civil lines region for better access to water and to take advantage of the natural defence of being placed between the ridge and the canal. For this, a cut was made to redirect the water of the canal along the ridge. Kishan Lal Diwan had brought in the proposal of reclaiming the catchment land of Najafgarh Jheel for development to the Nawab of Jhajjar. Finally, the Jheel work was executed by Captain Durand. With reference to the Map drawn by Durand, the Jheel had five sources- The hills along the west of Delhi, The Badshahpur Nala, the Bopania Nala, The Nala from Bahadar Garh and Sahibi. Dams were erected on the Badshahpur Nala,primarily for irrigation purposes on land from Badshahpur to Dhulkot. The local knowledge of the flooding zones of the Jheel made the people cultivate their crops at higher grounds. The proposals by Durand had some practical challenges and local opposition. Without drainage of the jheel, water level was managed Source: Settlement Report of Delhi during the alteration of heavy and light rainfall years. But in case of Figure 1: MAP OF DELHI IN 1807 ( Graphic:Author). Base: Sketch of Environs of Delhi. complete drainage there would be water scarcity. As a result the concept of Escape Canal was proposed to the west of the Western Yamuna Canal to bring in water during dry season. Captain Durand proposed to have a 36 37  regulator bridge (Dam) to the west of Basai Darapur at Basei to control The brigade was isolated and 1000 men were killed. The siege train History and Politics History and Politics the water used for irrigation. As a preventive measure against seasonal carrying ammunition for the British proceeded to Delhi and the revolt flooding of the jheel, widening of the drain was considered a feasible was suppressed successfully. The villagers in the area supported the strategy by the settlement officer. mutiny and consequently, the participating villages were destroyed. (Mahdi Hussain, 2006) After the bridge was broken, Najafgarh became The draining of the Jheel brought in huge losses to the administration, an impervious barrier for the mutineers and their defeat was imminent. but there were considerable improvements in the living conditions of the cultivators around the jheel. The infrastructural development at the canal The destruction of the Pulchaddar aqueduct, a sturdy structure used bought more land under irrigation and hence increased the revenue for for conveying canal water across the Najafgarh Jhil cut, further fortified the Britishers. British defences by cutting off potential water access for the enemy. (Fanshawe,1902) The Line of Defence in the Uprising of 1857 Around July 31st,1857, sepoys attempted to construct a temporary bridge The 1850s saw a rising dissent towards colonial authority which led to the across the Najafgarh Jhil cut, aiming to flank the British position. This first war of independence of 1857, marked by the conscious beginning manoeuvre, if successful, could have caused significant inconvenience of the Independence struggle against the colonial tyranny of the British. to the British forces. However, the measures undertaken to secure the The British camps were strategically placed between the Yamuna and Najafgarh Jheel cut and the vigilance of troops like Lieutenant Norman, northern ridge on the east, and Najafgarh on the west. who encountered enemy forces near Baprola village, demonstrated the importance of this waterway in shaping the strategic landscape of the Lieutenant Norman’s narrative underscores the strategic importance conflict. of the drainage cut from the Najafgarh Jhil, which provided a crucial defensive barrier for the British forces positioned behind the Ridge Hydro Hegemony by the Empire (1857). The wide and deep canal, running nearly parallel to the ridge and featuring a masonry bridge approximately 1200 yards from the The impact of the war was twofold: first, the destruction, demolition, Flagstaff Tower, posed a significant obstacle to enemy advancement. and seizure that occurred in both the city and some of its surrounding (Fanshawe,1902). Despite the strategic defence system, the British camps villages during and after the revolt; second, the British response, which led were invaded by mutineers who moved in from Meerut in the east. to the establishment of a memorial landscape. The rebellion resulted in This announced the capture of Delhi and the British officials were on the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration high alert. of India by the British Crown. Subsequently, the British assumed control of Delhi, taking charge of legal matters, revenue collection, fortification After the massacre of the British in the Cantonment region, the repairs, sanitation improvements, and maintaining law and order. (Lahiri, mutineers crossed the nala at Nangli and moved to the west towards 2003) Najafgarh to stop the Siege train, carrying ammunition for the British, coming in through the Rohtak road and seal their victory. But when they The Uprising of 1857 made the British adopt moreserious strategies to were camping in the Najafgarh village to the west of Najafgarh nala, they ensure that there will be no such revolt in the future. Their first priority were attacked by British (Gen. Nicholson) who cut them off from the was to strengthen their defences for which took control of the spatial main army on the other side by destroying the Bassi bridge, which was a restructuring of Delhi which had a significant effect on the socio-spatial strategic move to prevent their escape into Delhi. structure of the city. 38 39  The city faced intentional ‘desacralization’ (Cohn 1987: 646) as the History and Politics History and Politics original functions and layouts of some of the most important buildings and city quarters were deliberately altered. The cantonment, which had been moved outside the walls in 1828, was brought back into the city. After 1857, Delhi had two distinct functional and cultural areas segregated based on political favour and access to resources (One colonial and the other indigenous) (Parthasarthy, 1990). But this retribution extended beyond the city walls, as the villages who supported the mutineers had to face the wrath of the Prize agents who were given legal allowance to plunder the wealth of the locals as they saw fit. (Islamuddin, 2011). Villages like Wazirpur, Dheerpur, Timarpur and Basai Dharapur which were feared to be allied with the mutineers and were located along the strategic line of defence i.e. Najafgarh, were forcefully taken over and awarded to British loyals, thus altering Delhi’s social landscape BRITISH SIEGE TRAIN significantly (Lahiri, 2003). The role of Najafgarh as a strategic line of defence hence influenced the infrastructure related to it and the land use surrounding it. The second approach aimed at appeasing the public through a policy framework that fostered infrastructure development and public works to improve irrigation and sanitation. Several policies implemented under the guise of public good were implicitly meant to facilitate the control of water and land associated with it. The first such policy to be implemented was the Improvement in Towns Act (Act 26 of 1850), an enabling Act that called for contributions to support municipal commissions that would int