Trade Receivables (PDF)

**Trade receivables** - claims arising from sale of merchandise or services in the ordinary course of business. Ex. accounts receivable and notes receivable. **Accounts receivable -** sale of goods and services in the ordinary course of business and not supported by promissory notes. (customers\' a...

**Trade receivables** - claims arising from sale of merchandise or services in the ordinary course of business. Ex. accounts receivable and notes receivable. **Accounts receivable -** sale of goods and services in the ordinary course of business and not supported by promissory notes. (customers\' accounts, trade debtors, and trade accounts receivable.) **Notes receivable -** supported by formal promises to pay in the form of notes. **Nontrade receivables -** claims arising from sources other than the sale of merchandise or services in the ordinary course of business. **Trade & Nontrade Receivables** which are expected to be realized in cash within a year are **current assets**. If more than a year, **noncurrent asset.** Trade Receivable is influenced by both the operating cycle and the 1 year, whereas Nontrade Receivables is influenced by only the 1 year period. Trade receivables and nontrade receivables which are currently collectible shall be presented on the face of the statement of financial position as one line item called trade and other receivables. However, the details of the total trade and other receivables shall be disclosed in the notes to financial statements. Accounts Receivable 5,000,000.00 Allowance for Doubtful Account (200,000.00) Notes Receivable 1,000,000.00 Accrued Interest on Note Receivable 150,000.00 Advances to Officers and Employees 100,000.00 Dividends Receivable [250,000.00] **Total Trade and other Receivable [6,300,000.00]** ***EXAMPLES OF NON- TRADE RECEIVABLES*** a\. Advances to or receivables from shareholders, directors, officers or employees. If collectible in one year, such advances or receivables should be classified as current assets. b\. Advances to affiliates are noncurrent investments. c\. Advances to supplier are current assets. d\. Subscriptions receivable should be shown preferably as a deduction from subscribed share capital unless collectible currently. e\. Creditors\' accounts with debit balances as a result of overpayment or returns and allowances are classified as current assets. f\. Special deposits on contract bids normally are classified as noncurrent assets because such deposits are likely to remain outstanding for a considerable long period of time. g\. Dividend receivable, accrued rent receivable, accrued royalties receivable and accrued interest receivable are usually classified as current assets. h\. Claims receivable such as claims against common carriers for losses or damages, claim for rebates and tax refunds are normally classified as current assets. **[CUSTOMERS' CREDIT BALANCE --]** are credit balances in accounts receivable resulting from overpayments, returns and allowances, and advance payments from customers. \- It is classified as current liabilities and are not offset against debit balances in other customers accounts, except when the same is not material in which case only the net accounts receivable may be presented. ***INITIAL MEASUREMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE*** PFRS 9, paragraph 5.1.1, provides that a financial asset shall be recognized initially at fair value plus transaction costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition. The fair value of a financial asset is usually the transaction price, meaning, the fair value of the consideration given. For short-term receivables, the fair value is equal to the face amount or original invoice amount. Cash flows relating to short-term receivables are not discounted because the effect of discounting is usually immaterial. Accordingly, accounts receivable shall be measured initially at face amount or original invoice amount. With respect to accounts receivable, transaction costs are not normally incurred because the accounts simply arise from the act of selling goods in the ordinary course of business. ***SUBSEQUENT MEASUREMENT*** In accordance with PFRS 9, paragraph 5.2.1, after initial recognition, accounts receivable shall be measured at amortized cost. The amortized cost is actually the **[net realizable value of accounts receivable.]** The term amortized cost has more relevance in long-term note receivable. Thus, the term net realizable value is preferably used in relation to accounts receivable. The net realizable value of accounts receivable is the amount of cash expected to be collected or the estimated recoverable amount. ***NET REALIZABLE VALUE*** The initial amount recognized for accounts receivable shall be reduced by adjustments which in the ordinary course of business will reduce the amount recoverable from the customer This is based on the established basic principle that assets shall not be carried at above their recoverable amount. Accordingly, in estimating the net realizable value of trade accounts receivable, the following deductions are made: a\. Allowance for freight charge b\. Allowance for sales return c\. Allowance for sales discount d\. Allowance for doubtful accounts ***TERMS RELATED TO FREIGHT CHARGE*** **[FOB destination]** means that ownership of the goods purchased is vested in the buyer upon receipt thereof. Accordingly, the seller shall be responsible for the freight charge up to the point of destination. **[FOB shipping point]** means that ownership of the goods purchased is vested in the buyer upon shipment thereof. Thus, it is incumbent upon the buyer to pay for the transportation charge from the point of shipment to the point of destination. The term **[freight collect]** means that freight charge on the goods shipped is not yet paid. The common carrier shall collect the same from the buyer. Thus, under this, the freight charge is [actually paid by the buyer.] The term **[freight prepaid]** means that freight charge on the goods shipped is [already paid by the seller.] ***ACCOUNTING FOR FREIGHT CHARGE*** Sometimes, goods are sold [FOB destination] but shipped [freight collect] with the understanding that the buyer will pay for the freight charge and deduct the same when remittance is made by him. On the part of the seller, the freight charge is recorded by debiting freight out and crediting allowance for freight charge. ***ALLOWANCE FOR SALES RETURNS*** The measurement of accounts receivable shall also recognize the probability that some customers will return goods that are unsatisfactory or will make other claims requiring reduction in the amount due as in the case of shipment shortages and defects.  ***SALES DISCOUNT*** Entities usually offer **[cash discounts]** to credit customers. A cash discount is a reduction from an invoice price by reason of prompt payment. A **[cash discount]** is known as **[sales discount]** on the part of the seller and a purchase discount on the part of the buyer. A cash discount may be expressed as 5/10, n/30. This means that the customer is entitled to a 5% discount if payment is made in 10 days from the invoice date. If the customer fails to pay within the 10-day discount period, the gross amount of the invoice price must be paid within 30 days from the invoice date. ***METHODS OF RECORDING CREDIT SALES*** **[a. Gross method -]** The accounts receivable and sales are recorded at gross amount of the invoice. The gross method is the common and widely used method because it is simple to apply. **[b. Net method -]**The accounts receivable and sales are recorded at net amount of the invoice, meaning the invoice price minus the cash discount whether taken or not taken. ***GROSS METHOD*** ***NET METHOD***  ***ALLOWANCE FOR SALES DISCOUNT*** If customers are granted cash discounts for prompt payment, then, conceptually estimates of cash discounts on open accounts at the end of the period based on past experience shall be made. ***ACCOUNTING FOR BAD DEBTS*** Two Methods: 1. Allowance Method 2. Direct Write off Method ***ALLOWANCE METHOD*** If customers are granted cash discounts for prompt payment, then, conceptually estimates of cash discounts on open accounts at the end of the period based on past experience shall be made.  ***RECOVERIES OF ACCOUNTS WRITTEN OFF*** If a collection is made on account previously written off as uncollectible, the customary procedure is first to recharge the customer\'s account with the amount collected and possibly with the entire amount previously charged off if it is now expected that collection will be received in full. The collection is then recorded normally by debiting cash and crediting accounts receivable.   The recharging of the customer\'s account is usually followed because it is an evidence of the attempt of the customer to reestablish his credit with the entity. What account should be credited when the customer\'s account is recharged? The generally accepted approach is to simply reverse the original entry of write off regardless of whether the recovery is during the year of write off or subsequent thereto. ***DIRECT WRITEOFF METHODS*** The direct writeoff method requires recognition of a bad debt loss only when the accounts proved to be worthless or uncollectible. Worthless accounts are recorded by debiting bad debts and crediting accounts receivable. If the accounts are only doubtful of collection, no adjustment is necessary. This approach is often used by small businesses because it is simple to apply. As a matter of fact the Bureau of Internal Revenue recognizes only this method for income tax purposes. However, the direct writeoff method violates the matching principle because the bad debt loss is often recognized in later accounting period than the period in which the sales reyenue was recognized. The direct writeoff method is not permitted under IFRS. ***DOUBTFUL ACCOUNTS IN THE INCOME STATEMENT*** 1\. Distribution cost If the granting of credit and collection of accounts are under the charge of the sales manager, doubtful accounts shall be considered as distribution cost. 2\. Administrative expense If the granting of credit and collection of accounts are under the charge of an officer other than sales manager, doubtful accounts shall be considered as administrative expense. In the absence of any contrary statement, doubtful accounts shall be classified as administrative expense. **UNIT 3.1 ESTIMATION OF DOUBTFUL ACCOUNTS** ***METHODS OF ESTIMATING DOUBTFUL ACCOUNTS*** 1\. Aging the accounts receivable or \"statement of financial position approach\" 2\. Percent of accounts receivable or also statement of financial position approach 3\. Percent of sales or \"income statement approach" ***AGING OF ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE*** The aging of accounts receivable involves an analysis where the accounts are classified into not due or past due. a\. Not due b\. 1 to 30 days past due c.31 to 60 days past due d\. 61 to 90 days past due e\. 91 to 120 days past due f\. 121 to 180 days past due g\. 181 to 365 days past due h\. More than 1 year past due The allowance is then determined by multiplying the total of each classification by the rate or percent of loss experienced by the entity for each category. The major argument for the use of this method is the more accurate and scientific computation of the allowance for doubtful accounts. This method has the advantage of presenting fairly the accounts receivable in the statement of financial position at net realizable value. The objection to the aging method is that it violates the matching process. Moreover, this method could become prohibitively time consuming if a large number of accounts are involved  ***PERCENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE*** A certain rate is multiplied by the open accounts at the end of the period in order to get the required allowance balance. The rate used is usually determined from past experience of the entity. This procedure has the advantage of presenting the accounts receivable at estimated net realizable value. The approach is also simple to apply. However, the application of this approach violates the principle of matching bad debt loss against the sales revenue. Moreover, the loss experience rate may be difficult to obtain and may not be reliable. The balance of accounts receivable is P2,000,000 and the credit balance in the allowance for doubtful accounts is P10,000. Doubtful accounts are estimated at 3% of accounts receivable. Journal entry: Doubtful accounts 50,000.00 Allowance for doubtful accounts 50,000.00 Required allowance (3% x 2,000,000) 60,000.00 Less: Credit balance in allowance 10,000.00 Doubtful accounts expense 50,000.00 ***PERCENT OF SALES*** The amount of sales for the year is multiplied by a certain rate to get the doubtful accounts expense. The rate may be applied on credit sales or total sales. Theoretically, the rate to be used is computed by dividing the bad debt losses in prior years by the charge sales of prior years. The rate thus obtained is multiplied by the current year\'s charge sales to arrive at the doubtful accounts expense. Practically, however, there is no substantial difference if in the computation of the rate, the basis is total sales of the prior periods. In such a case, the rate thus obtained is multiplied by the current year\'s total sales to get the doubtful accounts expense. This procedure of determining the rate has the advantage of eliminating the extra work of making a record of cash sales and credit sales. However, this approach may prove unsatisfactory when there is a considerable fluctuation in the proportion of cash and credit sales periodically. ***ARGUMENT FOR PERCENT OF SALES METHOD*** When the "percent of sales" method is used in computing doubtful accounts, proper matching of cost against revenue is achieved. This is so because the bad debt loss is directly related to sales and reported in the year of sale. Thus, this method is an income statement approach because it favors the income statement. ***ARGUMENT AGAINST PERCENT OF SALES METHOD*** The main argument against this method is that the accounts receivable may not be shown at estimated realizable value because the allowance for doubtful accounts may prove excessive or inadequate. Thus, it becomes necessary that from time to time the accounts should be \"aged\" to ascertain the probable loss. As a consequence, the rate applied on sales should be revised accordingly. ***PERCENT OF SALES*** **UNIT 4. INVENTORIES** **"INVENTORIES are assets held for sale in the ordinary course of business, in the process of production for such sale or in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services."** ***CLASSES OF INVENTORIES*** 1. **TRADING CONCERN** -- one that buys and sells goods in the same form purchased. The term use is **["MERCHANDISE INVENTORY"]**. 2. **MANUFACTURING CONCERN** -- one that buys goods which are altered or converted into another form before they are made available for sale. a\. Finished Goods b\. Goods in Process c\. Raw Materials d\. Factory or Manufacturing Supplies - Finished Goods -- completed products which are ready for sale. - Goods in Process -- work in process are partially completed products which are require further process or work before they can be sold. - Raw Materials -- goods that are to be used in production process. "Direct Materials" - Factory or Manufacturing Supplies -- similar to raw materials but their relationship to end product is indirect. "Indirect Materials" ***GOODS INCLUDIBLE IN THE INVENTORY*** As a rule, all goods to which the entity has title shall be included in the inventory, regardless of location. The phrase \"passing of title\" is a legal language which means \"the point of time at which ownership changes.\" ***LEGAL TEST*** **Is the entity the owner of the goods to be inventoried?** If the answer is in the affirmative, the goods shall be [included] in the inventory. If the answer is in the negative, the goods shall be [excluded] from the inventory. Applying the legal test, the following items are included in inventory: a\. Goods owned and on hand b\. Goods in transit and sold FOB destination c\. Goods in transit and purchased FOB shipping point d\. Goods out on consignment to consignee e\. Goods in the hands of salesmen or agents f\. Goods held by customers on approval or on trial ***EXCEPTION TO THE LEGAL TEST*** Installment contracts may provide for retention of title by the seller until the selling price is fully collected. Following the legal test, the goods sold on installment basis are still the property of the seller and therefore normally includible in his inventory. However, in such a case, it is an accepted accounting procedure to record the installment sale as a regular sale on the part of the seller and as a regular purchase on the part of the buyer. Thus, the goods sold on installment are included in the inventory of the buyer and excluded from that of the seller, the legal test to the contrary notwithstanding. This is a clear example of [economic substance prevailing over legal form]. ***WHO IS THE OWNER OF GOODS IN TRANSIT*** **FOB destination** - ownership of goods purchased is transferred only upon receipt of the goods by the buyer at the point of destination. \- the goods in transit are still the property of the seller. \- the seller shall legally be responsible for freight charges and other expenses up to the point of destination. **FOB shipping point** -- ownership is transferred upon shipment of the goods and therefore, the goods in transit are the property of the buyer. \- the buyer shall legally be responsible for freight charges and other expenses from the point of shipment to the point of destination. ***FREIGHT TERMS*** **[Freight collect] -** freight charge on the goods shipped is not yet paid. The common carrier shall collect the same from the buyer. Thus, the freight charge is actually paid by the buyer if the term is freight collect. **[Freight prepaid]** - freight charge on the goods shipped is already paid by the seller. **[\"FOB destination\" and \"FOB shipping point"]** - determine ownership of the goods in transit and the party who is supposed to pay the freight charge and other expenses from the point of shipment to the point of destination. **[\"freight collect\" and \"freight prepaid\"]** - determine the party who actually paid the freight charge but not the party who is supposed to legally pay the freight charge. ***MARITIME SHIPPING TERMS*** **[FAS or free alongside]** - A seller who ships FAS must bear all expenses and risk involved in delivering the goods to the dock next to or alongside the vessel on which the goods are to be shipped. The buyer bears the cost of loading and shipment and thus, title passes to the buyer when the carrier takes possession of the goods. **[CIF or Cost, insurance and freight]** - Under this shipping contract, the buyer agrees to pay in a lump sum the cost of the goods, insurance cost and freight charge. The shipping contract may be modified as CF which means that the buyer agrees to pay in a lump sum the cost of the goods and freight charge only. In either case, the seller must pay for the cost of loading. Thus, title and risk of loss shall pass to the buyer upon delivery of the goods to the carrier. **[Ex-ship]** - A seller who delivers the goods ex-ship bears all expenses and risk of loss until the goods are unloaded at which time title and risk of loss shall pass to the buyer. ***CONSIGNED GOODS*** "A [consignment] is a method of marketing goods in which the owner called the consignor transfers physical possession of certain goods to an agent called the consignee who sells them on the owner\'s behalf." Consigned goods shall be included in the consignor\'s inventory and excluded from the consignee\'s inventory. Freight and other handling charges on goods out on consignment are part of the cost of goods consigned. When consigned goods are sold by the consignee, a report is made to the consignor together with a cash remittance for the amount of sales minus commission and other expenses chargeable to the consignor. For example, a consignee sells consigned goods for P100,000. This amount is remitted to the consignor less commission of P15,000 and advertising of P2,000. Cash 83,000 Commission 15,000 Advertising 2,000 Sales 100,000 Incidentally, consigned goods are recorded by the consignor by means of a memorandum entry. ***STATEMENT PRESENTATION*** Inventories are generally classified as current assets. The inventories shall be presented as one line item in the statement of financial position but the details of the inventories shall be disclosed in the notes to financial statements. For example, the note shall disclose the composition of the inventories of a manufacturing entity as finished goods, goods in process, raw materials and manufacturing supplies. ***ACCOUNTING FOR INVENTORIES*** 1\. **[Periodic System -]** calls for the physical counting of goods on hand at the end of the accounting period to determine quantities. The quantities are then multiplied by the corresponding unit costs to get the inventory value for balance sheet purposes. \- gives actual or physical inventories. \- generally used when the individual inventory items have small peso investment, such as groceries, hardware and auto parts. ***4.1 ILLUSTRATION- PERIODIC SYSTEM***  ***ACCOUNTING FOR INVENTORIES*** 2\. **[Perpetual System -]** requires the maintenance of records called [stock cards] that usually offer a running summary of the inventory inflow and outflow. \- Inventory increases and decreases are reflected in the stock cards and the resulting balance represents the inventory. This approach gives book or perpetual inventories. \- Commonly used where the inventory items treated individually represent a relatively large peso investment such as jewelry and cars. \- In an ideal perpetual system, the stock cards are kept to reflect and control both units and costs. \- When the perpetual system is used, a physical count of the units on hand should at least be made once a year to confirm the balances appearing on the stock cards. ***4.2 ILLUSTRATION- PERPETUAL SYSTEM***  ***INVENTORY SHORTAGE OR OVERAGE***  ***TRADE DISCOUNTS AND CASH DISCOUNTS*** **Trade discounts** are deductions from the list or catalogue price in order to arrive at the invoice price which is the amount actually charged to the buyer. Thus, trade discounts are [not recorded]. The purpose of trade discounts is to encourage trading or increase sales. Trade discounts also suggest to the buyer the price at which the goods may be resold. **Cash discounts** are deductions from the invoice price when payment is made within the discount period. The purpose of cash discounts is to encourage prompt payment. Cash discounts are recorded as purchase discount by the buyer and sales discount by the seller. **Purchase discount** is deducted from purchases to arrive at net purchases and sales discount is deducted from sales to arrive at net sales revenue. ***METHODS OF RECORDING PURCHASES*** 1\. **[Gross method]** - Purchases and accounts payable are recorded at gross amount of invoice. 2\. **[Net method]** - Purchases and accounts payable are recorded at net amount of the invoice. ***4.4 ILLUSTRATION- GROSS METHOD*** ***4.4 ILLUSTRATION- NET METHOD***  ***GROSS METHOD VS. NET METHOD*** The cost measured under the net method represents the cash equivalent price on the date of payment and therefore the theoretically correct historical cost. However, in practice, most entities record purchases at gross invoice amount. Technically, the gross method violates the matching principle because discounts are recorded only when taken or when cash is paid rather than when purchases that give rise to the discounts are made. Moreover, this procedure does not allocate discounts taken between goods sold and goods on hand. Despite its theoretical shortcomings, the gross method is supported on practical grounds. The gross method is more convenient than the net method from a bookkeeping standpoint. Moreover, if applied consistently over time, the gross method usually produces no material errors in the financial statements. ***COST OF INVENTORIES*** The cost of inventories shall comprise: a\. Cost of purchase b\. Cost of conversion c\. Directly attributable cost incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition ***COST OF PURCHASE*** The [cost of purchase] of inventories comprises the purchase price, import duties and irrecoverable taxes, freight, handling and other costs directly attributable to the acquisition of finished goods, materials and services. Trade discounts, rebates and other similar items are deducted in determining the cost of purchase. The cost of purchase [shall not] include foreign exchange differences which arise directly from the recent acquisition of inventories involving a foreign currency. Moreover, when inventories are purchased with deferred settlement terms, the difference between the purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount paid is recognized as [interest expense over the period of financing]. ***COST OF CONVERSION*** The [cost of conversion of inventories] includes cost directly related to the units of production such as direct labor. The [cost of conversion] also includes a systematic allocation of fixed and variable production overhead that is incurred in converting materials into finished goods. [Fixed production overhead] is the indirect cost of production that remains relatively constant regardless of the volume of production. Examples are depreciation and maintenance of factory building and equipment, and the cost of factory management and administration. [Variable production overhead] is the indirect cost of production that varies directly with the volume of production. Examples are indirect labor and indirect materials. ***ALLOCATION OF FIXED PRODUCTION OVERHEAD*** The [allocation of fixed production overhead] to the cost of conversion is based on the normal capacity of the production facilities. [Normal capacity] is the production expected to be achieved on circumstances taking into account the loss of capacity resulting average over a number of periods or seasons under normal from planned maintenance. The amount of fixed overhead allocated to each unit of production is not increased as consequence of low production or idle plant. Unallocated fixed overhead is recognized as expense in the period in which it is incurred. ***ALLOCATION OF VARIABLE PRODUCTION OVERHEAD*** [Variable production overhead] is allocated to each unit of production on the basis of the actual use of the production facilities. A production process may result in more than one product being produced simultaneously. This is the case, for example, when joint products are produced or where there is a main product and a by-product. When the costs of conversion are [not separately identifiable], they are allocated between the products on a rational and consistent basis, for example, on the basis of the relative sales value of each product. Most by-products by their nature are [not material]. By-products are measured at net realizable value and this value is [deducted] from the cost of the main product. ***DIRECTLY ATTRIBUTABLE COST*** **[Directly attributable cost]** is the cost of inventories incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be appropriate to include the cost of designing product for specific customers in the cost of inventories. However, the following costs are excluded from the cost of inventories and recognized as **[expenses]** in the period when incurred: a\. Abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labor and other production costs. b\. Storage costs, unless necessary in the production process prior to a further production stage. Thus, storage [costs on goods in process] are [capitalized] but storage costs on [finished goods] are [expensed.] c\. Administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to their present location and condition. d\. Distribution or selling costs **[Directly attributable cost]** is the cost of inventories incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be appropriate to include the cost of designing product for specific customers in the cost of inventories. However, the following costs are excluded from the cost of inventories and recognized as **[expenses]** in the period when incurred: a\. Abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labor and other production costs. b\. Storage costs, unless necessary in the production process prior to a further production stage. Thus, storage [costs on goods in process] are [capitalized] but storage costs on [finished goods] are [expensed.] c\. Administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to their present location and condition. d\. Distribution or selling costs ***COST OF INVENTORIES OF A SERVICE PROVIDER*** The cost of inventories of a service provider consists primarily of the following: a\. Labor and other costs of personnel directly engaged in providing the service, including supervisory personnel b\. Directly attributable overhead. Labor and other costs relating to sales and general administrative personnel are not included but are recognized as expenses in the period incurred. **UNIT 4.1 INVENTORY COST FLOW** ***COST FORMULAS*** PAS 2, paragraph 25, expressly provided that the cost of inventories shall be determined by using either: a. First in, First out b. Weighted average The standard does not permit anymore the use of last in, first out (LIFO) as an alternative formula in measuring cost of inventories. ***FIRST IN, FIRST OUT (FIFO)*** The FIFO method assumes that the goods of first purchase are first sold and consequently the goods remaining at the inventory at the end of the period are those most recently purchased or produced. In other words, the FIFO is in accordance with the ordinary merchandising procedure that the goods are sold in the order they are purchase. The rule is "first come, first sold" The inventory is thud expressed in terms of recent or new prices while the cost of goods sold is representative of earlier or old prices. This method favors the statement of financial position in that the inventory is stated at current replacement cost. The objection to the method is that there is improper matching of cost against revenue because the good sold are stated at earlier or older prices resulting in understatement of cost of sales. Accordingly in a period of inflation or rising prices the FIFO method would result to the highest net income. However in a period of deflation or declining prices the fifo method would result to the lowest net income.   ***WEIGHTED AVERAGE- PERIODIC*** ***THE PRECEDING ILLUSTRATIVE DATA ARE USED*** **UNIT 4.2 LOWER OF COST AND NET REALIZABLE VALUE** **[LOWER OF COST AND NET REALIZABLE VALUE]** "PAS 2, paragraph 9, provides that inventories shall be measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value. The measurement of inventory at the lower of cost and net realizable value is now known as LCNRV." **[NET REALIZABLE VALUE]** **Net realizable value or NRV** is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated cost of completion and the estimated cost of disposal. The cost of inventories may not be recoverable under the following circumstances: a\. The inventories are damaged. b\. The inventories have become wholly or partially obsolete. c\. The selling prices have declined. d\. The estimated cost of completion or the estimated cost of disposal has increased. The practice of writing inventories down below cost to net realizable value is consistent with the view that assets [shall not] be carried in excess of amounts expected to be realized from their sale or use. **[DETERMINATION OF NET REALIZABLE VALUE]** Inventories are usually written down to net realizable value on an item by item or individual basis. It is not appropriate to write down inventories based on a classification of inventory, for example, finished goods or all inventories in a particular industry or geographical segment.\ In some circumstances, however, it may be appropriate to\ group similar or related items. This may be the case with items of inventory relating to the same product line that have similar purposes, are produced and marketed in the same geographical area and cannot be practically evaluated separately. Materials held for use in production are not written down below cost if the finished products in which they will be incorporated are expected to be sold at or above cost. However, when a decline in the price of materials indicates that the cost of the finished products exceeds net realizable value, the materials are written down to net realizable value. In such circumstances, the [replacement cost] of materials may be the best evidence of net realizable value. **[ACCOUNTING FOR INVENTORY WRITE DOWN]** If the cost is lower than net realizable value, there is no accounting problem because the inventory is measured at cost and the increase in value is not recognized. If the net realizable value is lower than cost, the inventory is measured at net realizable value and the decrease in value is recognized **[Methods of accounting for the inventory writedown]** a\. Direct method or cost of goods sold method b\. Allowance method or loss method **[DIRECT METHOD]** The inventory is recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value. This method is also known as "Cost of goods sold method" because any loss on inventory write down or gain on revers of inventory write down is [not accounted separately but buried in the cost of goods sold.] **[ALLOWANCE METHOD]** The inventory is recorded at cost and any loss on inventory writedown is accounted for separately. This method is also known as "Loss Method" because a loss account "loss on inventory writedown" is debited and a valuation account "allowance for inventory writedown" is credited. In subsequent years, this allowance account is adjusted upward or downward depending on the difference between the cost and net realizable value of the inventory at year-end. If the required allowance increases, an additional loss is recognized. If the required allowance decreases, a gain on reversal of inventory writedown is recorded. However, the gain is limited only to the extent of the allowance balance. Preferably, the allowance method is used in order that the effects of writedown and reversal of writedown can be clearly identified. As a matter of fact, PAS 2, paragraph 36, requires disclosure of the amount of any inventory writedown and the amount of any reversal of inventory writedown.    **[CONTINUING ILLUSTRATION]** The gain on reversal of inventory writedown is presented as a deduction from cost of goods sold. " PAS 2, pagragraph 34, provides that the amount of any reversal of any writedown of inventory arising from an increase in net realizable value shall be recognized as a reduction in the amount of inventory recognized as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs." The amount of inventory recognized as an expense of the period is actually the cost of goods sold during the period. **[PURCHASE COMMITMENTS]** **Purchase commitments** are obligations of the entity to acquire certain goods sometime in the future at a fixed price and fixed quantity. Actually, a purchase contract has already been made for future delivery of goods fixed in price and in quantity. Where the purchase commitments are significant or unusual, disclosure is required in the accompanying notes to financial statements. Any losses which are expected to arise from firm and noncancelable commitments shall be recognized. If there is a decline in purchase price after a purchase commitment has been made, a loss is recorded in the period of the price decline. Note that a purchase commitment must be noncancelable in order that a loss purchase commitment can be recognized. Thus, if at the end of the reporting period, the purchase price falls below the agreed price the difference is accounted for as a debit to loss on purchase commitments and a credit to an estimated liability.