Psychophysics and the Emergence of Psychology PDF

4/03/2020 FAKULTI PSIKOLOGI OUTLINE DAN PENDIDIKAN Psychophysics Ernst Heinrich Weber Gu...

4/03/2020 FAKULTI PSIKOLOGI OUTLINE DAN PENDIDIKAN Psychophysics Ernst Heinrich Weber Gustav Theodor Fechner TOPIC 7 Other prominent Names PSYCHOPHYSICS AND Rudolph Hermann Lotze THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz OUTLINE 1  4/03/2020 PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS Threshold is a measurement that given by the subjects pertaining of two aspects. For example, subject was presented two small jar (50 gm), lifted the jar and has a sense of its weight. Equipment to determining two point thresholds. Test skin sensitivity, sensory awareness and perception of pain. PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS ‘Just noticeable difference’ (jnd) is Psychophysics pioneered the another concept given by Weber. It is quantification of certain mental the smallest detectable difference processes and demonstrated lawful between the standard and the relationship between physical stimuli comparison. and the psychological impressions of stimuli. PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) He studied the sense of touch. Sensitivity varies widely depending on which part of the body is stimulated. 2  4/03/2020 PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS He formulated Weber’s Law to describe Weber’s work was the inspiration for the relationship between physical and hundreds of research concerning jnd experience differences. and assisting Fechner in making the He found that in order to produce a study of psychological things similar in jnd in fact was a function of the physical sciences. amount of existing stimulation. PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS Gustave Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) The method of constant stimuli He developed new methodologies in Comparison stimuli are coupled with psychophysics including: the standard stimulus in a random The method of limits fashion, and the subject’s task is to report whether the comparison Consisting of presenting a standard stimulus is equal to, greater than or stimulus along with variable or weaker than the standard, or comparison stimuli of greater and alternatively, detected or not lesser value than the standard. detected. PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICS The method of average error, Fechner’s method had wide applicability sometime called the method of and became a standard part of training adjustment programs for experimental Permit subject to manipulate a psychologists. comparison stimulus until it appears Variations of his methods are employed to match a standard. by psychologists today, e.g. investigating problems such as perception of air quality. 3  4/03/2020 PSYCHOPHYSICS OTHER PROMINENT NAMES Weber’s formulate the theme for Rudolph Hermann Lotze (1817–1881) experimental approach to psychology Both Weber and Fechner influenced and Fechner perfected it, thus giving Lotze. name as experimental psychology. He wrote the first book on physiological psychology in 1852 (Medizinische Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele). OTHER PROMINENT NAMES OTHER PROMINENT NAMES His book ‘Outlines of Psychology’ Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von (1881) investigating topics such as Helmholtz (1821–1894) memory, unconscious process, Rejected the idea that vital forces or psychopathology and treatment, and mysterious energies influence sensory processes. physiological or psychological Pioneered work in the perception of processes. space and depth. OTHER PROMINENT NAMES OTHER PROMINENT NAMES His masterpiece, the ‘Handbook of He also studied the color vision and Physiological Optics’: developed a theory together with He conducted extensive research in Thomas Young (1773–1829) and James visual perception and described in Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) which called detail of the rod and retina. as tri-chromatic theory of color vision. He invented the ophthalmoscope (an They concluded that the eye must instrument for viewing the retina). contain three different kinds of color He also demonstrated that the light receptors, one for each of these so- that reaches retina is partly absorbed called primary colors: red, green and and partly reflected. blue (or violet). 4  4/03/2020 OTHER PROMINENT NAMES OTHER PROMINENT NAMES He wrote On the Sensations of Tone, a Helmholtz contribution to psychology pioneering work in the physics, were so great, for example much of his physiology, and psychology of auditory discussion of depth perception is still perception and music. relevant today and is commonly An attempted to identify possible included in introductory psychology physiological structures for pitch texts. perception. OTHER PROMINENT NAMES FORMAL FOUNDING Beck (1968) stated that his most Wilhem Maximilan Wundt (1832–1920) significant contributions to the field of Was born August 16, 1832 in the small sensory physiology and psychology. village of Neckarau near Mannheim. In particular, he laid the foundations Born and raised in the family of genius, for the experimental investigation of i.e. his father family included historians, the sensory processes in audition theologians, economists, geographers and vision. and two presidents of Heidelberg University. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING From his mother side, including Also worked with Johannes Muller at scientists, and physicians. Berlin. He also worked with as assistant Started university life at Tubingen and with Helmhotz. continued to Heidelberg where he Worked at Heidelberg for 17 years that worked with Robert Wilhelm Bunsen – earned him as ‘Extraordinary Professor’. developed gas analysis for industrial The formal beginnings of modern application. experimental psychology are traced to the year 1879, when Wundt established a laboratory at the University of Leipzig. 5  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING From a single laboratory room on the General Characteristics of Wundt’s Leipzig campus, Wundt became the key Thought player in launching a new discipline that Wundt believe that the lower limits of was to be international in scope. mental function are illustrated in Who would have predicted that, within movements that have a voluntary basis. a century, a course in psychology would He believed that the origin of mental be required for many university majors processes dated to the origin of life or that psychology as a major subject itself. would be among the most popular on university campuses? FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING In Wundt’s psychology, experience is Wundt’s breadth of vision for the new central. psychology was illustrated in several Wundt believed strongly in the unity ways: and interdependence of mental and He employed a variety of methods: physical processes. introspection; naturalistic observation, historical methods. He emphasized precise measurements and the importance of being able to replicate findings. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Had a vision of wider psychology that Voluntarism : included studies of social and cultures The name Wundt preferred for his variables. system of thought. Voluntaristic psychology is one that emphasizes psychological causality. For example, when asking someone why he choose A rather than B. 6  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Nevertheless, Wundt did not deny Wundt’s voluntarism specifies the scope that there are underlying material of psychological investigation that is we and efficient physiological and study those experiences and behaviors biochemical causes for a choice, but that are varied to meet changing as a psychologists, we must study circumstances on the basis of past physical motives! learning. Voluntary actions are not mechanical; rather, they adapt in a flexible manner to changing circumstances. For example: hunter and hunted! FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Inside Wundt’s Laboratory Other topics such as positive and In his laboratory, he and fellow students negative afterimages, visual contrast, studied several nowadays psychological illusions, and the perception of size, phenomena, e.g. sensation and depth and motion. perception. Topics such as the abilities to distinguish color presented to different areas of the retina or tones presented in various combinations of pitch and loudness. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt’s laboratory work involved Students such Edward Scripture, rigorous approaches to modest Edward Bradford Titchener, and August problems in physiological psychology, Kirschmann applied these values to a sensation and perception with an variety of sense modalities. emphasis on precise measurement (e.g. by using a pendulum myograph to precisely measure the speed of different reflex actions). 7  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt's Beat (Making) Apparatus (Taktier- Apparat nach Wundt) Description: A drum, rotated by weights, turns in a complete circle in 4 seconds. Pins on the drum are set in rows at different distances so that placing the contact on the slider can select different time intervals and thus different intervals between contact Wundt's Beat (Making) Apparatus closures. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt's Eye Motion Demonstrator (Demonstrations-Ophthalmotrop nach Wundt) Description: This model was used to demonstrate the action of the extra ocular muscles to move the eyeball. There are 6 cords attached to the points which correspond to the muscle insertions. Each of the 6 cords can be moved singly or in combination to show how the muscles cause eye movements. Wundt's Eye Motion Demonstrator FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt's Perimeter (Perimeter nach Wundt) Description: This device allows the presentation of visual stimuli in all parts of the visual field and at a constant distance from the subject's eye. It is used to examine the visual field for defects and to plot visual acuity and color acuity. It presumably comes from Wundt's time with Helmholtz. Wundt's Perimeter 8  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt's Sound Interrupter [Pulse Generator] (Schallunterbrecher nach Wundt) Description: This apparatus apparently produces a pulse of a certain tone. The tone comes through a tube to a rotating disk. The disk has 15 precisely sized holes which can each be filled with a stopper. The speed of the disk can be calibrated through a rotation counter which is mentioned but not shown. Wundt's Sound Interrupter [Pulse Generator] FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt-style Tachistoscope (Tachistoskop nach Wundt) Description: This is a device designed to present a visual stimulus for a very short adjustable exposure time by using a gravity operated falling shutter. The onset of the drop (fall) of the shutter is controlled by solenoids. Wundt's Perimeter FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt's Rotatory Apparatus for "Complication" Studies (Rotationsapparatus für Komplikations- Versuche nach Wundt) Description: This is Wundt's improved apparatus for the "complication" experiment. The apparatus appeared in 1902, in one of the last issues of Philosophische Studien and one year before Wundt's 70-year Festschrift in Wundt's Rotatory Apparatus for "Complication" Studies Volume 20. 9  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING The article was apparently the first article of that volume, and thus seems to have pride of place. Since, at this time, no one was much interested in the voluntarist or anti-mechanist conclusions of this experiment, Wundt's continuing interest in this topic is puzzling. Wundt's Rotatory Apparatus for "Complication" Studies FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt-style Stroboscope (Stroboskop nach The rotation axis can be moved through Wundt) 90 deg in order to vary the Description: This stroboscope is presentation. The image holders are reported to be suitable for exact driven with an electrical motor or other psychological research. This device has suitable source. In order to make the 8 image holders mounted by spring-held placement secure, the device is clips on 8 radial pipes and which can be mounted on a heavy plate and it can be placed at any distance from 21 to 51 cm attached to a table top with clamps. from the central axis about which the images revolve. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Some Key Concepts in Wundt’s System To discover the laws that regulate Definition of psychology combinations into more complex Defined it as a science that experiences. investigates ‘the facts of Wundt referred combination of consciousness’ (Wundt, 1912). elements as a psychic compound. Psychology has two tasks: To discover the elements of consciousness; and 10  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Elements Nevertheless, we may treat simple Wundt believed that there are mental sensations (e.g. blueness, redness, elements, or pure sensations such as sweetness etc) as elements. sensation of the beat of a metronome. He recognized that a simple sensation on the psychological side-that is, a psychological element. FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Sensations and Perceptions An idea generally refers to Wundt defined sensation as an combinations that may come from element of consciousness. memory, previous associations etc. The term perception generally refers to combinations of outward sense impressions (e.g. an object of a particular shape and color may be called an apple). FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Association and Apperception One of Wundt’s contribution were Wundt believed that compound or tridimensional theory of feeling combinations of elements may be involving: passive or active. pleasure and pain; Passive combinations as associations strain and relaxation; and and active combinations as excitation and quiescence. apperceptions. 11  4/03/2020 FORMAL FOUNDING FORMAL FOUNDING Wundt (1912) warned that feelings Wundt said that so-called emotions such must not be overlooked because they as joy or hope represent pleasurable are tied to more complex psychological feelings tied to a particular cognitive processes such as apperception, content; anger or fear may represent memory, imagination, perception and feeling of strain and unpleasantness tied cognition. also to a particular cognitive content. FORMAL FOUNDING WUNDT’S LEGACY The Principle of Creative Synthesis “Wundt is the founder because he Wundt believed that there is real wedded physiology and philosophy and novelty and creativity in higher made the resulting offspring mental operations. independent. He brought the empirical This principle refers to ‘the fact that methods of physiology to the questions in all physical combinations, the of philosophy” (Leahey, 1987; p. 182). product is not a mere sum of the separate elements that compose such combinations, but it represents a new creation’. WUNDT’S LEGACY WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY Blumenthal (1975) called attention to Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) additional lasting influences. For Well-known psychiatrist learned example: factor analytic studies of experimental methodology from Wundt feelings have yielded results that and applied it to early scientific studies correspond closely to the predictions of of mental disorder. Wundt’s tridimensional theory. Blumenthal (1975) said that Kraepelin His work was also a central influence in advanced a theory of schizophrenia the development of applied cognitive derived specifically from Wundtian psychology (Hoffman & Deffenbacher, psychology. 1992). 12  4/03/2020 WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY His early studies on the psychological In 1883, he published an early effects of alcohol and morphine taxonomy of psychiatric disorders that established Kraepelin as a pioneer in anticipated current classification the field of psychopharmacology (Healy, systems and introduced such enduring 1993). diagnostic terms as paranoia and manic-depressive psychosis. WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY He is also studies on dementia that He envisioned a larger role for the leads to the study of Alzheimer disease- psychiatrist in the courtroom and even named after his friend neurologist Alois suggested that clinicians have a voice in Alzheimer (1864-1915). judicial decisions regarding the variety Kraepelin also played a critical role in and length of imprisonment. the development of criminal psychiatry- He believed the root of urged the usage of psychiatric psychopathology to be largely organic treatment in rehabilitating prisoners. and drew on his findings to educate the public about the health dangers of alcoholism and syphilis. WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) In March of 1896, he opened the The founder of clinical psychology. world’s first clinic headed by a His work on topics such as perception psychologist, that handled mainly of pain and the special learning learning disorders. problem of mentally handicapped McReynolds (1997) noted that Witmer children important for early school was the first to see that scientific psychologists (Fagan, 1996). psychology could serve as the basis for a helping professional discipline. 13  4/03/2020 WUNDT’S STUDENTS LEGACY SUMMARY McWhirter & McWhirter (1997) The psychophysics contributions: suggested that his work anticipated Weber; latter developments in I/O and Fechner; counseling psychology. Lotze; and Helmholtz. The rise of experimental psychology. The legacy of Wundt and his students. 14