HSC1010 The Self - Part 1 PDF

HSC1010 The Self Part 1: Theories of Personality Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand key personality terms and perspectives Explain psyc...

HSC1010 The Self Part 1: Theories of Personality Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand key personality terms and perspectives Explain psychodynamic theory of personality Describe legacy and criticisms of psychodynamic perspective Understand behavioural & social-cognitive theories of personality, their contributions and criticisms Explain the humanistic theories of personality, their contributions and criticisms Describe trait theories of personality, major personality dimensions, and pros and cons of this perspective Understand how behavioural genetics, environment and culture all influence personality Identify different methods of assessing personality What is Personality? Brian Little - Who are you, really? The puzzle of personality: https://www.ted.com/talks/brian_little_who_are_you_really_the_puzzle_of_perso nality Personality Terms Personality: distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts and emotions that characterize an individual Character: personal characteristics (relating to moral and ethical behaviour) acquired during upbringing Temperament: hereditary & enduring aspects of personality Personality Trait: stable qualities person shows in most situations Personality Type: psychological classification of individuals based on common traits that occur together consistently Personality Perspectives Four major perspectives in viewing & explaining personality: Psychodynamic Theories Behavioural & Social-Cognitive Theories Humanistic Theories Trait Theories Psychodynamic Theories Sigmund Freud – Topographic Model, Defense Mechanisms Neo-Freudians Criticisms Psychodynamic Theories Variety of theoretical models derived from the work of Freud Behaviour: product of psychological forces within the individual, often outside conscious awareness Well-known theorists: Freud, Jung, Adler & Erikson Mind comprises 3 levels of awareness (Freud) Conscious Mind: things we are focusing on Preconscious (Subconscious) Mind: things we are not currently aware of but which could focus on Unconscious Mind: things we are unaware of Freud’s view of the Human Mind: The Mental Iceberg Freud’s Structure of Personality Personality comprises 3 parts: Id: exists at birth, unconscious and unorganized, governed by pleasure principle (immediate satisfaction of needs irrespective of consequences) – your ‘wild side’ Ego: mostly conscious, rational & logical, develops in childhood, governed by the reality principle (satisfying id demands with no negative consequences) – ‘your sensible side’ Superego: partly conscious, consists of conscience (pride or guilt) & ego ideal (moral behaviour standards); develops in childhood – your ‘moral angel’ Freud’s Structure of Personality Where is Id, Ego, Superego in the topographic model? Personality: interplay & conflict between demands by id, restrictions by superego and direction by ego Freud’s Theory of Personality The constant conflict (inner war) between the id, ego and superego generates anxiety which in turn causes disordered behaviour The ego tries to control this anxiety (reduce or redirect it) through the use of ego defense mechanisms Defense mechanisms: unconsciously distorting perception of reality to reduce stress and anxiety Although not aware of these defense mechanisms while we use them; we may later become aware of their previous operation and use Freud: Defense Mechanisms Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Freud: Personality Development Personality develops in a series of 5 stages linked to the sexual development of the child Each stage produces certain amount of conflict & anxiety If not resolved properly, normal development may be interrupted and child may be stuck (fixation) at that stage 5 Psychosexual Stages: Oral Stage (first 18months) Anal Stage (18 – 36 months) Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years) Latency Stage (6 years – puberty) Genital Stage (puberty on) Neo-Freudians Neo-Freudians: followers of Freud who accepted the basic concepts of Freud’s theory but altered it in some way Less emphasis on sexuality and more emphasis on social, cultural and interpersonal variables in shaping personality Most influential neo-Freudians: Jung: Analytical Psychology Adler: Individual Psychology Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory Erickson: Psychosocial Development Theory Neo-Freudians Jung’s Analytical Psychology theory: personality comprised conscious ego, personal & collective unconscious Personal unconscious: Freud’s unconscious Collective unconscious: latent memories traces inherited from ancestors Archetypes: emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning Adler’s Individual Psychology: seeking superiority to overcome inferiority complex is driving force for personality Developed birth order theory firstborn feel inferior to younger children; overachievers middle children feel superior to older & younger children; very competitive younger children feel inferior to older children due to less freedom or responsibility Neo-Freudians Horney’s Psychoanalytic Social Theory stressed importance: social & cultural influences on personality development social (especially parent-child) relationships neurosis resulting from basic anxiety created when child born into powerful world of older children and adults neurotic personalities due to less-secure upbringings Erickson’s Psychosocial Development Theory: emphasises impact of social relationships across one’s lifespan 8 psychosocial stages of development (Part 2) Integrates personal, social and emotional development Legacy of Psychoanalytic Theory First to suggest unified theory to understand and explain human behaviour; psychoanalytic theory predecessor of all later personality theories personality develops through stages not always consciously aware of reasons for behaviour early life experiences influential to personality Current research has found support for: defense mechanisms unconscious mind that can influence conscious behaviour Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theories Despite significant contributions, psychodynamic theories have been criticized for: many concepts about unconscious motivations are impossible to confirm or disconfirm basing universal principles on experiences of few atypical patients theories of personality development based on the retrospective accounts of adults diagnosis based on interpretation of dreams & free association too much emphasis on sexual instincts Behavioural & Social-Cognitive Theories Albert Bandura – Reciprocal Determinism Julian Rotter – Social Learning Theory Criticisms Behavioural & Social-Cognitive Theories Behavioural Perspective: Personality comprises learned responses and habits (well-learned responses → automatic) Social-Cognitive Perspective: behaviour influenced by interaction between people’s traits (including thinking) and their social context Social: learning through conditioning or observing and imitating others Cognitive: thoughts and interpretations of situation Social-cognitive: person ↔ environment Most well-known social-cognitive theorists: Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism and Self-Efficacy Rotter: Social Learning Theory Social-Cognitive Theorists Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism: behaviour is influenced by interaction of 3 factors: BEHAVIOUR ENVIRONMENT Frequency Stimuli (Social / Physical) Intensity Reinforcement Skills Contingencies Practice Social Norms Self Efficacy PERSON Judgement of one’s perception Beliefs and Attitudes of how effective a behaviour Knowledge will be in any particular Expectations circumstance Social-Cognitive Theorists Rotter’s Social Learning Theory: personality is a relatively stable set of potential responses to various situations, based on: Locus of Control (LoC): beliefs about having or not having control for events that affect a person Internal LoC: events within one’s control External LoC: events outside one’s control (others/fate/chance) Internal Locus of Control External I control the consequences of The consequences of behaviour are my behaviour outside my control Improve relationships Increase effort to learn More resigned to circumstances “as they Do more exercise are” Less smoking and drinking Lower efforts to improve health Lower hypertension & heart attacks Lower levels of psychological adjustment Expectancy: behaviour is determined by cognitive expectations (our expectations following the behaviour & value placed on outcome) Evaluation of Social-Cognitive Theories Contributions highlights the effects of situations on and by individuals (person- environment interaction) suggests people can control their environment expanded on behavioural approach by building on learning and cognition research theories supported by empirical research Criticisms too focused on the situation & change ignores role of individual, emotions & genetics dilutes behavioural approach Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow – Hierarchy of Needs Carl Rogers – Self Concepts Criticisms Humanistic Theories Humanistic Theories: emphasise personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential highlight free will and choice emphasise the inherent goodness of people focus on natural progress towards fully developing one’s potential (striving for self-actualization) Developed as a reaction to the criticism of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of behaviorism Well-known advocates: Maslow (father of humanistic movement): Hierarchy of Needs Rogers (founder of person-centered therapy): Theory of Self Humanistic Theories Self-Actualisation – a person’s motivation to reach his/her full Maslow’s Hierarchy potential. As shown in Maslow’s of Needs & Self- Hierarchy of Needs , basic needs Actualization must be met before self- - actualisation can be achieved. Humanistic Theories Rogers: Theory of Self or Self-Actualization Theory Self-concept: perception of oneself influenced by interactions with significant people in one’s life Real self: perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities (result of experiences) Ideal self: perception of whom one would like to be Fully functioning person: Ideal Real self self congruence between real and ideal selves Match = Harmony Ideal Real self self Mismatch = Anxiety Humanistic Theories Rogers: Theory of Self or Self-Actualization Theory Self-actualization tendency: striving to fulfil one’s innate capacities and capabilities (inborn tendency) Personality development guided by 2 basic needs: i. one’s unique self-actualization tendency ii. personal need for positive regard (warmth, affection, love & from one’s significant others) that could be: unconditional positive regard (given unconditionally) conditional positive regard (given only when behaviour meets conditions of others) BASIC HUMAN NEEDS OTHER’S RESPONSES RESULT unconditional positive SELF- Need for Self- regard ACTUALISATION Actualisation Need for Positive conditional positive SELF- Regard regard DISCREPANCIES Evaluation of Humanistic Theories Contributions influential to many fields (e.g., counselling, education, management, developmental & child psychology) foundations for scientific positive psychology brought resilience, empathy & altruism into spotlight Criticisms concepts vague, subjective and untestable too much emphasis on individualism inherent goodness in people too optimistic & naïve Trait Theories Gordon Allport – Trait Theory Raymond Cattell – 16 Personality Factors Paul Costa and Robert McCrae – Big Five Criticisms Trait Theories Trait Theories focus on identifying, describing and measuring characteristics defining personality in order to predict behaviour Trait: stable and enduring predisposition to think, feel and behave in a certain way Key trait theorists: Allport (original trait theorist) Cattell (16F test) McCrae & Costa (amongst many) The Big Five / OCEAN Eysenck Three-factor theory / PEN Trait Theorists Allport: All people have certain traits, or dispositions, that are the building blocks of personality Developed a ‘dictionary of traits’ to describe personality List of 200 traits, part of the nervous system Cattell: identified 16 traits (‘essence of personality’) using a statistical technique called factor analysis on Allport’s list developed test to measure these traits, 16 Personality Factors (16PF) described 2 types of traits surface traits: personality characteristics easily seen by other people (e.g., curiosity, dependability) source traits: basic underlying traits, forming the core of personality (e.g., introversion)  Trait Theorists McCrae & Costa (amongst large group of researchers): identified Five-factor personality traits, or now commonly named as the Big Five personality dimensions, OCEAN or CANOE. High Score Factor (OCEAN) Low Score Characteristic Characteristic creative, artistic, Openness: being curious, original, intellectual, creative, open to new conventional, down-to-earth, curious, ideas uncreative, non-conforming imaginative organised, reliable, Conscientiousness: being organised, systematic, punctual, unreliable, lazy, careless, negligent, neat, ambitious achievement oriented, dependable spontaneous talkative, Extraversion: being outgoing, talkative, sociable, enjoying social reserved, comfortable, being alone, optimistic, situations stays in background sociable, affectionate good-natured, Agreeableness: being affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, rude, uncooperative, irritable, trusting, helpful warm aggressive, competitive worrying, insecure, Neuroticism: being anxious, irritable, temperamental, moody calm, secure, relaxed, stable anxious, temperamental Evaluation of Trait Theories Contributions traits can be empirically measured influenced development of personality tests emphasise role of individual differences in personality cross-cultural studies support Big Five (& Eysenck) Criticisms do not take into account the environment or situation unreliable predictor of behaviour statistical analyses may have influenced outcomes do not explain how and why traits develop traits not always enduring – personality factors changeable trait-situation interaction: situation can affect traits based on self-reports – not always accurate Other Influences of Personality Biology Environment Culture Personality Assessments Biology & Personality Heritability: how much a trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group Behavioural Genetics: understanding how both genetics and the environment contribute to behaviour Nature vs Nurture Debate Behavioural Genetics based on heritability studies on twins & adopted individuals → genetic influence for many traits Twin Studies: identical twins more similar than fraternal twins (or unrelated people) on many traits & intelligence, even if raised in separate environments Adoption Studies of Twins: genetics influential to personality, in shared & non-shared environments; (i) identical twins in non-shared environment, (ii) identical twins vs. fraternal twins in shared environment. Behavioural genetic data show that the heritability of most traits is about 50% Environment & Personality Situations & Social Learning social-cognitive theories of personality learning experiences & resulting expectations and beliefs reciprocal determinism (person, behaviour & environment) siblings differ due to nonshared environment Parental Influence: not as influential (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000) shared environment less influential than non-shared no single parental style consistently used over time little relation between what parents do & how children turn out The Power of Peers Peer groups’ influence more powerful than parental Culture & Personality Differences between cultures that are more individual-based (individualist) and cultures that are more group-based (collectivist) Lack of appreciation of the cultural influences on behaviour can lead to misattributions to personality cultural differences on time, male aggressiveness etc. Individuals affected by culture but can vary within it Assessment of Personality Interview: professional asks series of question in an unstructured, semi-structured or structured manner ✓comprehensive  respondent can lie; interviewer bias Projective Tests: person presented with ambiguous visual stimuli and asked to describe these ✓elicit responses person unwilling/unable to give  subjective & ↓ reliability and validity Behavioural Assessments: direct observations of person’s behaviour in natural/clinical setting, including rating scales & frequency counts (of particular behaviours) ✓allows examination of everyday circumstances  observer bias; lack of environmental control Assessment of Personality Personality Inventories: paper-pencil/computerised tests comprising list of statements requiring specific responses ✓standardised, reliable, valid  self-report issues, understanding questions Rorschach Inkblot Test Example Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) End The Self – Part 1 of 2 HSC1010 The Self Part 2: Development over the Lifespan Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand scope of developmental psychology, its key areas and research designs Explain how genetics and chromosome deficiencies influence prenatal development and cause disorders Understand physical, cognitive, language and psychosocial development in infancy and childhood Explain temperament and attachment concepts Describe cognitive, psychosocial and moral development in adolescence Understand physical, cognitive and psychosocial development in adulthood Identify ageing theories Explain model of grief and loss Developmental Psychology Scope Developmental Disorders Nature and Nurture Feral Children Children raised by animals: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nv3ocntSSUU Developmental Psychology Development: the progressive and continuous change in an organism from birth to death (lifespan) Developmental psychology: scientific study of physical, cognitive and (psycho)social changes of an individual over their lifespan. Focuses on: Nature v Nurture (genetics or environment) Continuity v Stages (gradual or distinct stages) Stability v Change (of traits) Developmental Ψ Research The Challenge: age of people in a study should be an independent variable but people can’t be randomly assigned to different age groups. The Solution: 3 research designs approaches Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Nature v Nurture Nature v Nurture the greatest controversy in the study of human development Nature: influence of inherited characteristics Nurture: influence of environment Developmental psychologists: human development is best explained by the interaction between nature and nurture Genetics: study of how hereditary characteristics (traits) in an individual are transmitted from parents to offspring Behavioural Genetics: study of the relative power and limits of genetic & environmental influences on behaviour Basics of Genetics Chromosome: strands of DNA and proteins in the cell nucleus there are 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent) most characteristics determined by 22 pairs last pair determines sex DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): contains the genetic instructions used in the development of all living things (organism’s blueprint) Gene: segments of DNA that serves as basic unit of heredity. 2 types: Dominant allele: gene that controls expression of trait Recessive allele: gene influencing expression of trait only when paired with another recessive gene Basics of Genetics Genetic & Chromosome Problems Genetic disorders (2 recessive genes) include: PKU Cystic Fibrosis Sickle Cell Anaemia Tay-Sachs Disease Chromosome disorders (extra or missing pair) include Down Syndrome Klinefelter’s syndrome Turner’s syndrome Early Development Prenatal Development Infancy and Childhood Prenatal Development Prenatal Development: conception to birth Conception: when female becomes pregnant Fertilisation: when male sperm unites with female egg Zygote: cell resulting from fertilisation (divides into many cells until baby formed) Germinal stage (2 wks after fertilisation): zygote moves towards uterus & attaches to uterus wall; placenta & umbilical cord develop Embryonic stage: developing organism (embryo) 2-8 wks after fertilisation critical periods: environment influences infant’s development (Lamberto et al., 2021) teratogens: factors that can cause a birth defect Fetal stage: developing organism (fetus) 8 wks after fertilisation until birth Prenatal Development Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Infancy & Childhood Infancy & Childhood: birth to 12 years Immediate body operations at birth: respiratory, circulatory, temperature regulation, followed by digestive system Physical development 5 Reflexes: innate behaviours for survival (grasping, startle, rooting, stepping, sucking) 6 Motor milestones: birth until ~ 2 years (raising head & chest, rolling over, sitting up with support & without support, crawling, walking) – nutrition, care & health are vital Sensory development: touch, taste & smell highly developed; hearing functional but not fully developed; vision least developed Infancy & Childhood Cognitive development: the development of mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating Piaget: cognitive development based on interaction with physical environment Infancy & Childhood Vygotsky: cognitive development based on interaction with social environment Out of Reach Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): difference between what a child can do Zone of Proximal Development; learns through scaffolding alone versus what a child can do with help of teacher Scaffolding: learning process where a Current understanding; can highly skilled person gives more help at work unassisted beginning of process, and begins to withdraw help as learner’s skills improve Language: important factor of scaffolding, provides building blocks for thinking Infancy & Childhood Language: a set of rules for combining elements that are inherently meaningless into utterances that convey meaning Stages of Language Development: 1. cooing (2 months): vowel-like sounds 2. babbling (6 months): vowels + consonants 3. one-word speech (~ 1 year): “milk”=I want milk 4. telegraphic speech (~ 1.5 years): “mummy go” 5. whole sentences (2 years) Language: Built In or Learned? Chomsky: human brain contains innate mental module containing a universal grammar enabling young children to acquire language readily. Current thinking: Acquisition of a first language must require both biological readiness and social experience. Children not exposed to language during early years rarely speak normally or correctly. Infancy & Childhood Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD): range of neurodevelopmental disorders characterised by difficulties in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviours. Prevalence (CDC-USA, 2022) About 1 in 44 children has been identified with ASD in USA; approx. 1% in SG 4 times more common among boys than among girls; related to systemising (vs. empathizing) Risk factors (CDC, 2022) Having a sibling with ASD May occur as a result of genetic predisposition, environmental or unknown factors; Having certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as fragile X syndrome or tuberous sclerosis Experiencing complications at birth Being born to older parents Not linked to childhood immunisations Infancy & Childhood Psychosocial Development: development of personality, including acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy to adulthood Important concepts in development: temperament & attachment Temperament: characteristic style of behaviour established at birth 1. Easy: playful and adaptable, respond positively to new stimuli 2. Difficult: non-adaptable, respond negatively to new stimuli or people 3. Slow to warm-up: avoid and withdraw from new stimuli, need time to adjust to change Temperament can be affected by parenting & environment, and is related to attachment to some extent (Mangelsdorf & Frosch, 1999) Infancy & Childhood Attachment: intense reciprocal relationship & enduring emotional connection between infant & primary caregiver. 4 attachment styles (Bowlby, Ainsworth, Harlow) Attachment Type Child Behaviour Caregiver Behaviour Secure attached; willing to explore reacts quickly and positively to distressed when caregiver leaves child’s needs happy when caregiver returns responsive to child’s needs seeks comfort from caregiver when scared or sad Avoidant unattached; explores without “touching base” unresponsive, uncaring not distressed when caregiver leaves dismissive does not acknowledge return of caregiver does not seek or make contact with caregiver Insecure- insecurely-attached responds to child ambivalent distressed when caregiver leaves inconsistently not comforted by return of caregiver Disorganized- insecurely-attached abusive or neglectful disoriented No attaching behaviours responds in frightening or Often appears dazed. confused or apprehensive in frightened ways presence of caregiver Infancy & Childhood Self-Concept: perception of self based on interactions with significant others Erikson: psychosocial development occurs in a series of 8 stages. The first 4 stages relate to infancy & childhood Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Adolescence and Adulthood Adolescence Adulthood Old Age Adolescence Adolescence: period of life from age 12 or 13 to early 20s, no longer a child, not quite an adult Physical Development: Puberty: sexual maturation period characterized by physical changes in the body (~4 yrs) Cognitive & Psychosocial Development Piaget’s formal operations stage: capable of abstract thinking adolescent egocentric thinking: preoccupation with own thoughts that are perceived to be important for others Erikson’s 5th psychosocial stage Adolescence Moral development: process of determining right or wrong in a given situations based on social standards. Kohlberg: Three stages of moral development across the lifespan Level Stage Definition Obedience & Based on avoiding punishment, focus on consequence of Pre-conventional punishment actions rather than intentions 3-7 years old Individualism & Behaviours based on self-interest (“what’s in it for me?”). exchange Doing the “right” action could result in reward ‘Good boy’/’good girl’ attitude based on social Interpersonal expectations and how they impact day to day Conventional relationships relationships 8-13 years old Law and order as highest ideal; social obedience to Authority & social order maintain functional society Learns that others have different values and that laws are Social contract contingent on culture; may disobey laws that are Post-conventional inconsistent with personal values Adulthood Develop internal moral principals and conscience; putting Universal principles oneself in other people’s shoes; begins to obey these principals above the law Adulthood Adulthood: period of life from early 20s until old age. 3 stages: Physical Development Cognitive Development Early (Emerging) 20s peak physical health 20s peak cognitive health adulthood: 20-35 years Middle adulthood ↓ hearing, vision, height; ↑ knowledge-base; (middle age): 36-64 ↑ weight; ↓ processing /↑ reaction time; ↑ years menopause & andropause; health memory issues (often stress-related) issues based on genetic & lifestyle factors Late adulthood: 65 ↓ physical strength; further cognitive decline years and above further ↓hearing Cognitive & physical decline can be slowed down (HHP, 2021). Adulthood Psychosocial Development Erikson’s last 3 stages Aging Theories Theories on age focus on either biological changes or external stressors Cellular-Clock Theory: cells have a limit in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage Wear-and-tear Theory: body’s organs and cell tissues wear out with repeated use and abuse Free-Radical Theory: unstable oxygen molecules cause damage to DNA and other cellular structures Hormonal Stress Theory: aging lowers body’s ability to cope with stress; stress hormones stay around longer Activity Theory: optimal aging associated with continued physical and mental activity and social interactions  Grief & Loss - 5 Stages of Grief (Kubler-Ross) Depression Acceptance Symptoms such Integrate range of sleep & emotions with life appetite experiences disturbances, Healing occurs Denial loneliness, Protects individual crying spells from intensity of loss Unpleasant but Will slowly diminish Bargaining essential for as impact is Dwelling over what healing process acknowledged could have prevented the loss Anger May hamper healing Can result from process if not feelings of resolved abandonment Can lead to guilt after anger is acknowledged Attitudes on death & dying Fears and attitudes towards death are influenced by one’s education, culture and religion Every culture has its own coherent explanation of death which is believed to be right by its members Biopsychosocial Approach on Healthy Aging Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall Successful Ageing – How it looks like? End The Self – Part 2 of 2