History Of Human Settlements In The Philippines PDF

1 Topic 01 – History of Human Settlements Carlos Aguillana Frecy Ann Binolirao Ma. Trisha Angela N. Pillado Architecture Department, College of Architecture and Fine Arts, Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science & Technol...

1 Topic 01 – History of Human Settlements Carlos Aguillana Frecy Ann Binolirao Ma. Trisha Angela N. Pillado Architecture Department, College of Architecture and Fine Arts, Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science & Technology ARHOUSNG John Vincent R. Lopez, uap, pia, rmp  2 BACKGROUND OF THE TOPIC The Philippines, an archipelago of over 7,000 islands, is home to a diverse range of human settlements that highlight the country's rich and varied past. Around 3000 BCE, Austronesian settlers arrived in the Philippines and founded barangays during the pre-colonial era. The "Datus," or local chiefs, governed the barangays, facilitated trade, and maintained social order in these early settlements. Indigenous communities developed strong social structures and cultural practices as a result of their success in commerce, agriculture, and fishing. Due to the frequent trade routes connecting these towns, a variety of cultures and traditions were able to thrive, creating the groundwork for the complex social structure of the nation. Spanish colonialism brought about a major shift in human settlements in the Philippines. To maintain dominance and promote trade, the Spanish built walled and fortified cities, like Intramuros in Manila. The outcome was the formation of mestizo communities as they reformed local authority, combining Spanish and indigenous traditions. The social and cultural fabric of the islands was profoundly impacted by the growth of Catholicism and the adoption of new farming techniques during this time. Human settlements in the Philippines underwent substantial transformation and development during the early 20th century American colonialism. Roads, schools, and public health systems were among the new infrastructure that the Americans brought, and it completely changed both rural and urban communities. During this time, English was promoted as a language of teaching, and a centralized government was established, significantly altering social structures and educational practices. As a result, ancient customs and contemporary influences started to coexist in Filipino society, laying the groundwork for further changes in the country's identity.  3 After the Philippines gained independence in 1946, human settlements quickly changed during the post-colonial era as the country worked to reshape itself. Due to industrialization and rural-to-urban migration, urbanization increased, with major city expansions such as Manila. As metropolitan areas developed into centers of economic activity, rural areas faced challenges related to land reform and service accessibility. Efforts were also made at this time to maintain a cultural legacy in the face of modernization, demonstrating Filipino society's adaptability and perseverance in navigating the difficulties of becoming a newly independent nation. Today, the Philippines offers a remarkable contrast between its rural and urban surroundings. While rural areas maintain their traditional ways of life, cities like Metro Manila are humming with activity. The way the country's settlements develop over time reveals something about the resilience and flexibility of its people, demonstrating their capacity to accept change while respecting their rich cultural legacy, even as they face contemporary difficulties like climate change, migration, and rising urbanization. PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD (3000 BCE - 1565 CE) The environment and the inventiveness of the early Filipinos shaped the varied and dynamic human settlements in the pre-colonial Philippines. While upland, riverine, and coastal groups all established unique lifestyles, they were all united by a dependence on natural resources and a sense of community. Comprehending these settlements offers significant perspectives on the Philippines' cultural legacy and underlines the continuing impact of pre-colonial existence on modern-day Filipino identity.  4 Houses in the Pre-Colonial Era In the Philippines, pre-colonial houses differed by ethnicity and geography. Typical examples included the Bahay Kubo, a thatched and bamboo stilted dwelling that is mostly used by rural communities. The earliest buildings were mostly constructed from native resources like wood and nipa palm; the Bahay na Bato, a stone home, appeared later. Some coastal communities also constructed Bangka dwellings on boats. Bahay Kubo Bahay Kubo was constructed with the Philippines' tropical environment in consideration. Composed of wood, bamboo, and nipa palm, it was constructed on stilts and is accessible by movable ladders. Tree Huts Certain tribes, such as the Kalingas, Mandayas, and Bagobos constructed tree huts in the pre-colonial period as a means of defense and shelter. These dwellings, which were frequently raised, were constructed from bamboo and other natural materials to protect them against flooding and predators. The layout promoted social activities and highlighted their relationship with the natural world. Banka or Bangkaw Bangka, or dwellings on boats, were typical of maritime settlements in pre-colonial Philippines, especially among the Badjao and other seafaring groups. These boat houses were made to be mobile and adaptable to the coastal environment using wood and other locally available  5 materials. Families could travel between fishing areas and villages with ease because they functioned as both dwellings and fishing vessels. Types of Settlements Coastal Settlements Figure 1: Coastal Settlements Note. (Camus, Michael. “Philippine Pre-Colonial Scorched Earth Tactics.” SINAUNANG PANAHON) The Philippines was home to several coastal villages that benefited from the wealth of marine resources. These communities were frequently positioned strategically along shorelines to provide easy access to commerce and fishing routes. Fishing was the main source of income and provided nourishment, therefore economic activity centered around it. Communities engaged in trading fish, shells, and agricultural products with nearby islands and other countries in Southeast Asia. Cavite is a well-known example of a coastal town. It is a trading hub where commodities were exchanged by merchants from China and other places, developed due to its location on the western shore of Luzon. These coastal settlements were known for their stilt buildings made of nipa  6 palm and bamboo, which were intended to endure flooding and provide protection from the elements. In these communities, the central plaza functioned as a hub for cultural practices and social gatherings, strengthening the bonds between neighbors. Riverine Villages Figure 2: Ravirine Villages Note. (Unearthing Paradise: A Comprehensive Exploration of the Cultural, Economic, and Political Tapestry of Pre-Colonial Philippines, n.d.) Riverine communities, named for their reliance on rich floodplains for agriculture, developed along major rivers. These communities benefited from the fertile soil and water available for irrigation, which made it possible to grow rice and other crops. These settlements' communal structures encouraged family collaboration as they engaged in joint agricultural and fishing operations. One prominent example of a riverine community is Batana. The rich soil that encouraged the growth of vegetables and grains allowed the villages residing along the banks of the Abucay  7 River to flourish. In addition to providing food, the river served as an essential channel for trade and communication, bridging different communities and promoting cross-cultural interaction. Upland Communities Figure 3: Upland Communities Note. (Wise. Pre Colonial Period in the Philippines Overview. Pinaywise.com. 2010) Upland communities in the Philippines' mountainous regions established unique lifestyles that were adapted to their surroundings. Slash-and-burn agriculture was a common practice in these communities, where products like rice, root vegetables, and fruits were grown. These highland regions were characterized by a social structure centered on clans or tribes, with close familial relationships and a significant regard for group decision-making. The Ifugao people are an excellent representation of upland communities' persistence and inventiveness. The Ifugao people, who are well-known for their stunning rice terraces in the Cordillera, invented advanced farming methods that made the most use of available land and revealed a deep awareness of their surroundings. Located in the mountains, their communities demonstrated a close relationship with the natural world and a communal way of life that valued cooperation and solidarity among members of the community.  8 Fortifications of Human Settlements in the Pre-Colonial Philippines The pre-colonial Filipinos built complex fortifications to protect vital locations and their people from possible invaders. These defenses served as a monument to their military creativity and resourcefulness. The Filipinos understood the value of defending their communities, particularly in a volatile region where intertribal disputes and outside threats were frequent occurrences. The building and design of the fortifications varied according to the available resources and the location. Mountainous areas relied on natural defenses like cliffs and rough terrain, whereas coastal villages frequently constructed watchtowers and stockades to guard against pirate attacks. Strong stone walls and moats were built in more central regions as a means of preventing invasions. These fortifications' designs were modified to meet the unique requirements of every settlement. They were made with strong materials that would not easily be destroyed, like timber, stone, and earthworks. Certain fortifications featured several defense layers, forming an intricate system of trenches and walls that were difficult for enemies to get through. Types of Fortifications Hilltop Forts Figure 4. Hilltop Forts Note. (Suralta, Bryle. See the Marvelous Pre-Colonial Castles of the Ivatan in Batanes. 2022)  9 Hilltop forts were strategic locations for observation and defense. Such elevated structures, which were frequently constructed from native materials such as stones and palisades, served as a barrier against intruders and other factions, giving them authority over neighboring lands. Coastal Watchtower Figure 5. Coastal Watchtower Note. (Watchtowers in the Eighteenth-Century Philippines: Material Representations of Colonial State Power, n.d.) Coastal watchtowers were constructed to maintain a watch on marine activity and defend localities from invasions or raids by pirates. Placed near coasts, these buildings offered the best view point for warning locals of impending danger. Stockades Figure 6. Stockades Note. (Palisade, n.d.)  10 Stockades were wooden or stone enclosures that were frequently utilized for avoiding invasions on settlements. Usually erected around villages, these buildings served as a barrier to intruders and facilitated communal organization for defense. Stone Forts Figure 7. Stone Forts Note. (Camus. Exploring Philippine Pre-Colonial Weapons. 2023) Stone forts were stronger defensive constructions made primarily of native materials like coral stones. These forts showed the community's ability to band together and defend itself while acting as barriers against invasions. Water Forts Figure 8. Water Forts Note. (Water Forts, Travel, Navigation raft, n.d.)  11 Water forts were defensive structures that were usually situated on or close to bodies of water, including lakes, rivers, or coastal regions. These forts offered strategic benefits against invaders and pirates by making use of natural rivers for trade and defense. These constructions were essential for establishing territorial dominance in addition to acting as defensive safeguards. They served as symbols of authority and strength, signifying the cohesion and strength of the community. The pre-colonial Filipinos were able to save their way of life and maintain their cultural legacy because of these fortifications. SPANISH COLONIZATION Figure 9. The Spaniards' impression of Manila Bay when they landed in May 1570. Note. (Postively Filipino, Colonization’s Impact on Manila, 2020) By the middle of the 16th century, the archipelago had been exploited by a European colonial force, and for generations, the Spanish shaped and crippled the island with their harsh  12 strategy of Gold, Cross, and Sword. It should be emphasized that religious beliefs and the Spanish government's emphasis on economic exploitation influenced settlement trends on the islands. Three factors notably contributed to Spanish tyranny and control over Manila and the other parts of the country: (1) the strategy of reduccion or compelled relocation, (2) the establishment of private property ownership, lastly (3) the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. Given the limited number of missionaries available at that moment, the General Synod of Manila created a reduction plan, or purposeful displacement of the people, to aid in widespread conversion to Catholicism. The procedure entailed ordering dispersed barangays to unite into compact but bigger communities and lowering their size (thus the term 'reduccion') so they could be readily and promptly summoned to attend church services and account for their regular donations. The policy intended to bring people "debajo de las campanas," or within range of church bells. (Einsiedel, 2020). The Spanish settlement model gave efficient control over the pueblos (town). Reduccion significantly improved the development of the country's local governments, the indigenous were introduced to the gridiron-plaza complex by the Laws of the Indies, a royal order issued by King Philip II in 1573, required every town to have a gridiron pattern (cuadricula) with a central square (plaza). The "town plaza complex" was surrounded by prominent structures such as the church and town hall. The streets were designed to provide an uninterrupted path for religious processions. The Spaniards, principalia, and people lived all around the structure. The religious leaders learned from Hispanic America's resettlement projects that tiny communities provided a foundation for rapid Christian introduction and societal structure.  13 Figure 10. Intramuros, 1852. The Plaza Mayor, with the bronze statue of King Carlos IV in front of the Manila Cathedral. The Ayuntamiento is on the left, while the Palacio del Gobernador is on the other, reflecting Spanish control in the Philippines. Note. (Wagner, Manila Cathedral, n.d.) Figure 11. This etching from 1734 depicts the Intramuros neighborhood showing a gridiron pattern. Note. (Velarde, et.al, Walled City of Manila, 1734)  14 Manila transformed from a wood-barricaded outpost to a fortified walled city known as Intramuros. As the city established itself in the economic structure of the galleon trade, distinct patterns of decentralization and localized concentration emerged. Discovering Quarries, Brick and Mortar In 1581, Antonio Sedeño, a Jesuit priest, came to the Philippines after serving in Mexico for nine years. His early exposure to military building, as well as his absorption in Mexico, where Spanish missions were swiftly established, provided him with enough competence to teach the indigenous the technique of masonry. Following the Intramuros fire incident in 1583, Governor General Santiago de Vera issued a decree in 1587 that all structures should be made of stone. In this sense, Father Sedeño started teaching Filipino and Chinese laborers how to quarry, prepare, and place stones. The inventive construction pleased the people, including Domingo de Salazar, Manila's first bishop, who promptly commissioned Fr. Sedeño plans to construct a masonry home. Governor Santiago de Vera then charged the Jesuits with rebuilding the city's main fort near the river's mouth, using fragile stone from the Pasig quarries. It was later named Fort Santiago. Through the found stone quarries in the 1580s, the craft of masonry evolved gradually over the islands. Cutstone buildings, like those in Manila, were called as de silleria or de cal y cantos. (Figure 19) Outside of Manila, the technique of cutting stone spread slowly, and houses were built using variously shaped boulders and river stones; this kind of architecture, known as rubblework, was dubbed de mamposteria. The art of producing bricks emerged in the same period as stone architecture. Clay was molded into rectangular wooden shapes and burnt in kilns to produce ladrillos (bricks) (Figure 20), tejas (roof tiles) (Figure 21), and baldosas (floor tiles) (Figure 22).  15 Argamasa (mortar), a powdered lime and water mixture, was used to bond stones and bricks together. Lime is derived from limestone quarries, seashells, and coral reefs. Based on traditional Filipino folklore, molasses, plant sap, and eggs were added to the mortar for more binding and durability. (Jose, n.d.) Figure 12. De cal y cantos Note. (Sy, Red solid bricks during the Spanish era in Philippines, n.d.) Figure 13. Ladrillos Note. (Archi Monarch, Types of Bricks Used in Construction, n.d.)  16 Figure 14. Tejas Note. (Filipina Architect, Tejas de Curva, n.d.) Figure 15. Baldosa Note. (Materiales Artesanales, Baldosa tonalidad clara formato cuadrado, n.d.) Bahay na Bato The Philippines has been defined by its tropical climate and rich geographic terrain, which resulted in the diverse growth of human settlements with unique architecture that reflected the cultural and social makeup of the ethnic native inhabitants before Spanish colonization. The Spanish conquistadors had a significant impact on the evolution of building construction and architecture, particularly with the establishment of the Bahay na Bato. (Arguson, 2021)  17 Bahay na bato ("house of stone") is a type of construction that originated in the Philippines during the Spanish colonization period. It's an upgraded version of the traditional bahay kubo. Its design has developed throughout time, but the Bahay Kubo's architectural base remains intact, representing the tropical climate, stormy season, and prone to earthquake environment of the whole archipelago of Austronesian, Spanish, and Chinese architecture. It was the result of social and economic advancement, as well as architectural innovation. With the opening of Manila to foreign commerce in 1834 and the Suez Canal in 1869, trade and agricultural output reached new heights, boosting the wealth of the native nobility, particularly in the provinces. Wealth has become the entrance to higher education, not only in Manila but also throughout Europe. The elite included landowners and artisans, as well as professionals such as physicians and accountants, and the highly well-educated metropolitan illustrado (enlightened). The upper class's lifestyle and goals, as well as their pretensions, necessitated a new sort of dwelling—the Bahay na Bato—that was vast, durable, pleasant, impressive, noble, and exquisite. Bahay na Bato: Evolution The first Bahay na Bato constructions had stone walls on both the ground and second level. Columns were also constructed of stone. The foundations were quite deep, and door and window openings were kept tiny to avoid weakening the building fabric. Beams, joists, and roof framework were also constructed of Philippine hardwood timber. Clay tiles replacing the combustible cogon grass in the roofing. Although the building materials used to construct the Bahay na Bato varied, the basic features of the homes remained identical as the traditional nipa huts, but on a larger scale. (Sales, 2013)  18 Figure 16. Image of Early Bahay na Bato Note. (Scribd, Ilocos Sur, 2015) However, the powerful earthquakes of the 17th century destroyed these stone houses. Earthquakes have significant impacts on the stone structures' construction methods and materials. The Philippines witnessed many more earthquakes, destroying several structures. During the 1860s and the 1890s, Spanish military engineers serving in the Philippines achieved considerable advances in earthquake-resistant buildings. Engineers like Manuel Cortés and Rafael Cerero explored anti-seismic remedies using logical mechanics. In 1880, the Philippines established one of the world's earliest seismic-resistant building rules. (Egana et al., 2014). The Consultative Council of Public Works established an earthquake ordinance in 1880. The earthquake regulation requires to use of lighter posts made of wood and lighter roofing materials, such as galvanized iron sheets. (Sales, 2013). As a result, a combination of Bahay na Bato and nipa hut was developed, with a stone ground floor and wood on higher levels. The multiple risks of fire and earthquake gave rise to a new style of architecture. With the notable exception of churches, new buildings rarely reached more than two stories. Stone walls  19 became as thick as 3 meters, and buildings began to use buttresses. Stone was only used for the first storey; the second story was now constructed of wood. Another key feature was the inclusion of the prehispanic framework, which used interlocking beams and houseposts to hold a structure together. The stone walls delegated their load-bearing function to the house posts, known as haligi or harigue; in essence, the house posts supported the second storey, while the stone walls served as a sturdy curtain for the timber structure. This kind of structure was soon known as Arquitectura Mestiza or "mixed architecture"—a word used by the Jesuit Ignacio Alzina as early as 1668—because it was partially wood and partly stone. Figure 17. Images of Acquitectura Mestiza Note. (Openthedorr, Filipino Architecture and Its Influences, 2013) The final quarter of the nineteenth century featured an increase in apartment homes (accesoria) and one or two-story buildings with several apartments known as viviendas.  20 Figure 18. Viviendas Note. (Openthedorr, Filipino Architecture and Its Influences, 2013) Figure 19. Bahay na Bato Floor Plan Sample Note. (Openthedorr, Filipino Architecture and Its Influences, 2013  21 Figure 20. Arquitectura Mestiza Detailed Bay Section Note. (Scribd. Bahay na Bato Plan, 2018) AMERICAN COLONIZATION The Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines, which took place on May 1, 1898, had a significant impact on American history and relations with Southeast Asia. In the months that followed, Spanish colonialism in the Republic of the Philippines fell, to be replaced by American control. With the implementation of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898, and following approval by just one vote in the US Senate on February 6, 1899, America gained official control of the Philippines. American forces and Filipino nationalists competed for control. Despite the American statement, brutal conflict continued in certain regions for some years afterward. After a large number of Filipinos perished, the colonial US mission was strengthened, and the colonization  22 government's methods were broadened. As a result, American authorities announced a separation of the Catholic Church and the government. English was designated as the nation's official language; the system of education was revamped; port, rail, and road development initiatives were initiated; and war-damaged villages were rebuilt. Notably, Western architectural and urban design ideals were implemented within the framework of the "national development" plan. (Morley, 2011) Modern Civilization and Urban Planning Americans immediately realized that several environmental and social issues existed. These included substandard housing, polluted rivers, widespread impoverishment, and the absence of a national school system. Similarly, Americans were particularly concerned about the social state of the Philippines. In summary, the Americans considered the Philippines as a country in desperate need of "improvements," therefore a plan aimed at separating Filipinos from their history and portraying the Philippines as an "underdeveloped" nation by developing an entirely new culture, environment, and identity. America intended to develop a new government framework for the Philippines, as well as to create new living and working conditions. In some circumstances, improvements to the environment cannot be ignored. Manila, its capital city, severely required urban reconstruction after warfare had destroyed multiple buildings and places. During the initial stages of American colonization, an outbreak of cholera in 1902 killed almost 200,000 individuals throughout the country. Healthier settings needed to be established. There was a severe necessity for better hygiene and health. (Morley, 2011) Thus, in 1902, the Americans introduced the toilet to Manila, along with a bucket conservation system termed the cubeta. (Figure 34) A pail closet, also known as a pail privy, was a  23 chamber for disposing of human excreta as part of the "pail system" of waste collection. The "closet" (toilet) was a small, private outhouse with a seat and a portable waste container underneath. Every night, local officials emptied the bucket wherein the person using it would discharge himself. The contents, known as "night soil," would be burnt or degraded to produce fertilizer. (Araneta, n.d.) Figure 21. Pail system Note. (Aycardo, Why the Tsalet Is the Prototype for Modern Philippine Homes, 2024) It was also under the Americans, that Manila thrived and developed swiftly following a city development plan created in 1905 by American architect Daniel H. Burnham, After only having been in the Philippines just a few weeks, Burnham's tour to the Philippines continues today in the shape of two city designs prepared for the cities of Manila and Baguio in 1905. Daniel Burnham's urban ideas are still seen in the Philippines today. Burnham's concepts may be seen firmly in both Manila and Baguio's urban landscapes. Although most of Burnham's original ideas hadn't been implemented in Manila, the partly completed Government Center and the  24 renovation of the waterfront south of the city center reflect Burnham's influences. As a result, Burnham's and America's impact persists. Figure 22. Daniel Burnharm’s Plan for Manila Note. (Morley, America and the Philippines: Modern Civilization and City Planning, 2011) Daniel Burnham also cooperated alongside architect William Parsons, who introduced innovations into Philippine architecture such as "the utilization of termite-resistant Philippine hardwood," "mass production of typical building types," and "the Kahn system of hollow block construction and reinforced concrete." (Santiago, n.d.) Sanitary Barrios In 1908, American urban planners introduced the concept of a well-planned neighborhood known as Sanitario Barrio. This community design included sanitation facilities in mass dwellings, fostered sanitary living, and implemented building rules. Housing lots were divided into blocks (Figure 35), with shared amenities and grid-patterned roads. Every sanitary block included a public  25 toilet, a surface drainage system, public bathhouses and laundry areas, and public water hydrants, all of which were free to residents. Figure 23. Housing project within the Fort McKinley Note. (Lorenzo, et. al., Historical study on the development of gated communities and its correlation with the barangay in the Philippines formed with European and American influences, 2019) Figure 24. Sanitary model house Note. (Aycardo, Why the Tsalet Is the Prototype for Modern Philippine Homes, 2024)  26 Following the success of Sanitary Barrios, later on, they designed a tsalet, which combines tropical traditional architectural features with hygienic design principles and contemporary materials. Afterward, in the year 1912, the Bureau of Health certified a variety of tsalets. (Lorenzo et al. 2019). Tsalet The Philippine Tsalet (Figure 32) is a single-story suburban home (Figure 33), a two-story house with living quarters on the upper floor, or a raised one-story house (Figure 34). The Tsalet is the culmination of this initiative, and it combines Filipino and American elements. The extended veranda is a defining feature because it allows for more outdoor living while also enhancing ventilation. Inside, the Tsalet encouraged solitude and separated living areas. The bedrooms are situated perpendicular to and opposite the entrance and living areas. The flammable nipa palm was replaced by a combination of cement, sand, and rice husk strengthened with woven bamboo. Tsalet forms are "a crossbreed of tropical characteristics of traditional houses with hygienic design principles and contemporary materials." In regards to sanitary conditions, Tsalet has new characteristics that promote cleaning and hygiene. This entails installing the Antipolo toilet system, which comprises (a.) a pit, (b.) a seat with a linked pipe, and (c.) a ventilation pipe. As before, it differed from traditional toilet practices of the period and helped to reduce environmental pollution. To sum up, the Tsalet contained utilities for ventilation, accessibility to clean water, and importantly, proper waste disposal, which improved its sanitary standards. (Aycardo, 2024)  27 Figure 25. Tsalet illustrated plans Note. (Aycardo, Why the Tsalet Is the Prototype for Modern Philippine Homes, 2024) Figure 26. One-storey elevated tsalet Note. (Aycardo, Why the Tsalet Is the Prototype for Modern Philippine Homes, 2024)  28 Figure 27. Two-storey tsalet Note. (NHCP Photo Collection, Jose "Pitong" Ledesma Ancestral House, 2010) Tsalet had an impact on Philippine urban development as well. Sanitary Barrios, an established neighborhood, can be seen as a forerunner to subdivision-style homes. These barrios had restricted blocks of partitioned land, and dwellings were built to stringent specifications. Even though it is not commonly known, the tsalet transformed how Filipinos engage with their physical surroundings. Considering its imperial origins, the style and design have retained a feeling of place by adapting to the Philippine environment. It developed an innovative way of constructing buildings and structures, that has since become the norm. Thus, Aycardo (2024) concluded that tsalet is the foundation of modern residences. POST-COLONIAL PERIOD Significantly, Manila's urban constructed history and priceless colonial architectural assets were destroyed during the liberation struggle of the year 1945. Manila was in ruins in 1945, as the Pacific War was coming to a close. The built heritage of the city, including the formerly magnificent  29 Spanish and American colonial buildings were destroyed and turned into debris by bombardment without distinction to free the city. United States Bombs made Manila the second-most damaged Allied city. However, war-torn Manila recovered. Manila was back on its feet. Reviving war-torn populations may seem like an unattainable goal. The chance to create fresh architecture for a recently independent country sprang from the ashes thanks to modernism. (Lico, 2017) During the post-colonialist age of modernism, the spirit of liberty and autonomy spread not just not only throughout the city but the entire nation. As a result, the contemporary structures that represented freedom and were constructed after a war from the time of their colonization. (Pangilinan, 2021) The Filipinos rebuilt their lives after rising from the ashes, and they were overcome with a sense of loss and longing for the items lost in the conflict, but they discovered in modernism the base upon which to build a new country. (Lico, 2017) Modern Architecture Of The Philippines The architectural symbol of optimism and survival during this time was modernism. Filipino architects sought to channel national mythology symbolism through the clean surfaces and simple geometry of modern buildings within a post-colonial cultural context. They looked to modernism as a handy aesthetic tool to criticize the colonial remnants in pre-war Manila's American neoclassical infrastructure. They aimed to create new environments that celebrated vernacular forms through modern geometric designs, reflecting freedom from the colonial past. Modernism was therefore a sensible choice because it presented a progressive picture. After independence, the architecture of the Philippines aimed to project an image that evoked a sense of national identity, patriotism, and hope for the country's uncharted future. (Lico, 2017)  30 Modernism could be found in bold investigations of novel architectural forms in the aftermath of the war inventive and creative mind. There was a symbolic appeal to modernism of fresh architecture for the reconstruction of a daring new world devastated by conflict. During the postwar recovery and the onset of national independence, modern architecture offered a suitable architectural representation of development, advancement, growth, and decolonization. Even if contemporary design was perceived as being dry, many people viewed it as impersonal and machine-like, constructive, logical, and impartial, and they supported its capacity to convey a new social structure. (Lico, 2017) Modern architecture emphasizes simplified geometries that align with a demand for honesty in materials, structure, and form. It focused on restraint instead of extravagance, prioritizing simplicity over complexity. For modern architects, buildings should be defined by light, structure, and mass, without any decorative elements to obscure their essence. Key characteristics of modern architecture included the use of reinforced concrete, steel, and glass, as well as a focus on cubic forms, geometric shapes, Cartesian grids, and a complete absence of applied decoration. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, glass walls, perforated screens, brise-soleil sun shades, and thin concrete shells were common architectural features. The architects gathered up their drawing boards and joined the excitement of reconstruction after a protracted period of inactivity. They had to give up the pre-war motifs and ornamentation to lower building costs and effectively finish the structure in the shortest amount of time as they built to meet the severe housing crisis and infrastructure deficit. Austerity after the war required simple, uncomplicated architectural forms, which modernism easily provided. “Form follows function” was the new doctrine proclaimed by the “third generation” Filipino architects, namely, Jose Maria Zaragoza (1912-1994), Cesar Concio (1907-2003), Angel Nakpil (1914-1980), Alfredo Luz (1904-  31 1980), Otillo Arellano (1916-1981), Felipe Mendoza (1917- 2000), Gabriel Formoso (1915-1996) and Carlos Arguelles (1917-2008). They believed that modernism was the best architectural style for creating a space and restoring lives following the carnage and anguish of war. Notable architectural buildings during the post-colonial period The Philippine government pursued modernism as soon as it proclaimed independence in order to preserve its cultural legacy. The belief in modernism motivated the development of the new, contemporary Capitol Complex. A team of architects and engineers was assembled by the Philippine government in 1947 to study the contemporary capital cities of Latin America and the United States. Upon their return, they were to create the master plan for both the state university campus and the modern capital city. The mission introduced South American modernism, especially Oscar Niemeyer's (1907–2012) works, to the team from the Philippines. One example is the twin Liberal Arts Building (1950) and the Engineering Building designed by Cesar Concio, a member of the delegation who later worked as the University of the Philippines' architect. He also imitated Oscar Niemeyer's St. Francis Church (1943) in Pampulha, Brazil, with his saddle-shaped Church of the Risen Lord (1954). Figure 28: Palma Hall Note. (The Palma Hall that was, n.d.)  32 Figure 29: Palma Hall Complex Note. (Palma Hall Complex, n.d.) Filipino-inspired architectural ideas and materials, such as bamboo and nipa, are the hallmarks of national architect Fransico Manosa, popularly known as "Bobby." President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo awarded him the National Artist Prize in 2009. The Coconut Palace is among his most well-known designs. Francisco Mañosa, a Filipino architect, is recognized for his innovative vision and ecological architecture, which are both evident in The Coconut Palace. Imelda Marcos commissioned the creation of this landmark building to showcase the adaptability of the coconut and other locally available eco-friendly materials. In addition to being a display of opulent excess, the palace's contemporary Filipino design fusion highlights how crucial it is to incorporate sustainable design principles into architectural creations. Through this extraordinary edifice, Mañosa skillfully combines traditional Filipino features with contemporary aesthetics, making it a great example of environmental conscience and ingenuity.  33 Figure 30: The Coconut Palace: A Showcase of Filipino Ingenuity, Sustainability, and Excess Note. (Coconut-Inspired Architecture, n.d.) In addition to being an architect, Leandro Locsin is also an interior designer and an artist. He is renowned for his straightforward design aesthetic, use of concrete, and floating volumes. President Corazon C. Aquino named him a National Artist of the Philippines for Architecture in 1990. The Church of Holy Sacrifice (1955), for example, not only launched Locsin's architectural career but also expedited the emergence of contemporary architecture in the Philippines. The Spaniards brought stone, but the Americans brought building materials including steel, glass, and reinforced concrete. Thanks to these construction materials, architects like Locsin can design structures and produce modern architecture incorporating fresh forms and advances. Consequently, the first attempt at thin-shell experimentation produced the Church of the Holy Sacrifice (Lico, 2017). These advancements became revolutionary, representing post-colonial and modern Philippine architecture as the nation saw more thin-shell experimentation constructions. The fundamental characteristics of modern architecture include the use of reinforced concrete, steel, and glass; cubic form; geometric shapes; cartesian grids; and the lack of applied  34 decoration. These characteristics are related to the claim made by Esroy et al. (2010) that modernism is "opposition to tradition." Locsin's decision to use reinforced concrete instead of other building materials is related to this idea of modernism rejecting tradition. According to Forty (2012), "Concrete is modern...it tells what it means to be modern," implying that by adopting reinforced concrete instead of stone—which is often seen as a prominent material that symbolizes the Spanish colonial era—Locsin is potentially redefining the architectural landscape of the Philippines. Figure 31: The repainted exterior dome of the UP Chapel showing its original color Note. (UP Chapel celebrates milestones at the turn of the New Year, n.d.) PRESENT The problem of housing is becoming increasingly pressing as the population grows. One of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to provide safe and affordable housing. Over 1.8 billion people worldwide lack access to suitable housing, according to UN-Habitat. Every year, 2 million individuals are forcibly removed from their homes, making 150 million people homeless.  35 According to a study conducted in the Philippines by Ballesteros et al. (2022), many low-income and impoverished households still cannot afford housing. The widely-used 30-percent price-to-income ratio overestimates affordability among the impoverished and underestimates it among higher-income groups, making it an inappropriate standard measure of housing affordability in the Philippines. Additionally, the authors made the case that industrialized nations with high rates of middle-class families and low rates of poverty are better suited for its implementation. In the Philippines, socialized housing that costs less than PHP 1 million is deemed affordable for the average household. However, the majority of these apartments are frequently situated distant from workplaces. A government financing initiative called the Community Mortgage Program (CMP) makes land purchases possible for community associations or organized informal settler families. Ballesteros et al. (2017) discovered that the Social Housing Finance Corporation might have disregarded the impoverished to prevent them from receiving the CMP benefits. The program's maximum loan amount in Metro Manila is insufficient to pay for the entire cost of the land. Poor households may find it difficult to obtain equity or may be obliged to borrow, which leads to an accumulation of debt that exceeds their means. According to Cureg and Ignacio (2021), the construction of housing might give Filipinos a decent standard of living and increase economic activity by generating jobs, consumer spending, indirect tax revenue, and output. They pleaded with the government to replace compliance-based home production policies with incentive-based ones. The socialized housing policies in place, which are based on price ceilings and quotas, have not been successful in garnering greater support from the private sector. To provide the necessary support to encourage higher uptake, they urged the National Economic and Development Authority and the Department of Human Settlements and  36 Urban Development to review the price ceilings and identify the factors causing the delayed adoption of cutting-edge construction technologies for affordable mass housing. The most efficient utilization of land resources is hampered by problems with the nation's land use management rules. Lebrilla and Lorenzo (2021) ascribed this to the lack of a cogent policy framework to direct the all-encompassing distribution and utilization of land resources. They called on the government to enact a national land use strategy to solve the rising demand for housing brought on by population growth and urbanization. Government Institutions on Housing and Settlements HUDCC Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council created by President Corazon C. Aquino to serve as the highest policy making body for housing and coordinate the activities of the government housing agencies to ensure the accomplishment of the National Shelter Program HLURB Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board is a national government agency tasked as tasked as the planning, regulatory and quasi-judicial body for land use development and real estate and housing regulation. NHA National Housing Authority is a government-owned and controlled corporation under the administrative supervision of the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council and classified under the Infrastructure Utilities Group. Provides responsive housing programs primarily to homeless low-income families with access to social services and economic opportunities with excellence while ensuring corporate viability.  37 HGC Housing Guaranty Corporation is a government-owned and controlled corporation mandated by law (Republic Act 8763) to promote sustainable homeownership by providing risk coverage or guarantees and tax/fiscal incentives to banks and financial institutions/investors granting housing development loans/credits, and home financing. NHMFC National Home Mortgage Finance Corporation - The primary purpose of the Corporation shall be to develop and provide for a secondary market for home mortgages granted by public and/or private home financing institutions. Philippine Laws on Settlements Executive Order No. 72 – Providing for the Preparation and Implementation of the Comprehensive Land Use Plans of Local Government Units Pursuant to the Local Government Code of 1991 and Other Pertinent Laws. Presidential Decree No. 957 Subdivision and Condominium Buyers Protective Decree) – Regulating the sale of Subdivision on lots and Condominium, providing penalties for violations thereof. Presidential Decree No. 1216 – Defining “Open Space” in Residential Subdivision and Amending Sec. 31 of PD. 957 Requiring Subdivision Owner to Provide Alleys, Sidewalks and Reserve Open Space for Parks or Recreational Use. Batas Pambansa 220 – An Act Authorizing the Ministry of Human Settlements to Establish and Promulgate Different Levels of Standards and Technical Requirements for Economic and Socialized  38 Housing Projects in Urban and Rural Areas from those Provided Under Presidential Decree No. 957, 1216, 1096 & 1185. Republic Act 7279 – Urban Development and Housing Act. An Act to provide for a Comprehensive and Continuing Urban Development and Housing Program, establishing the mechanism for its implementation and for other purposes.  39 References Anduaga, A. (2014). 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