Cement, Ceramic, and Glass PDF

Cements – adhesive substances that unite masses of TYPES OF CEMENT solid mater into compact whole. 1. PORTLAND CEMENT - Contains compounds of lime (principal American Society for Testing and Materials constitue...

Cements – adhesive substances that unite masses of TYPES OF CEMENT solid mater into compact whole. 1. PORTLAND CEMENT - Contains compounds of lime (principal American Society for Testing and Materials constituents) mixed with water forming paste. (ASTM) - defines this product as a hydraulic - Cements = calcareous cements cement produced by pulverizing Portland- cement clinker, and usually containing calcium sulfate. HISTORY Prehistoric and Ancient Times a. Type I. Regular Portland Cement – used for Egyptians developed – mortar from gypsum for concrete construction. building the Great Pyramid - Types: white (contains less ferric oxide), oil- well cement, and quick-setting cement. Roman times – introduction of lime cement b. Type II. Moderate-heat-of-hardening Portland Greek and Roman Innovations cement – used when moderate heat of hydration is required and/or for general - Pioneered the use of volcanic deposits concrete construction when exposed to (Santornin earth) mixed with lime and sand moderate sulfate activity. Romans – utilized powdered tiles or pottery. The term - Heat should not exceed 295 and 335 J/g after “cement” originated from this materials. 7 to 28 days, respectively. c. Type III. High-early-strength (HES) cement – Middle Ages made from raw materials with a lime-to-silica The term “cement,” continued to be used variously. ratio higher than Type I. - Ground finer than cements 18th and 19th Century - Higher concentrations of tricalcium cilicate d. Type IV. Low-heat Portland cement – lower James Parker – “Roman Cement,” 1796 – quick percentage and tricalcium silicate and setting and useful for hydraulic work tricalcium aluminate Joseph Aspdin – “Portland Cement” 1824 – - High percentage of tetracalcium resemblance for Portland stone and foundation for aluminoferrite and dicalcium silicate. modern cement. - Heat evolution is lower. e. Type V. Sulfate-resisting Portland cement – 1914 resist sulfates better than others. Ynchausti Business in Binangonan Rizal – first - Used when high sulfate resistance is cement plant required, contains lower concentrations of tricalcium aluminate. 1969 - Possesses higher content of tetracalcium 13 cements plants were established – 85 million bags aluminoferrite. annually 2024 2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) Challenges include increasing imports mostly from Cement not cementitious alone; becomes Vietnam – “Buy Local, Build Lokal,” program by one when mixed with lime. Cement Manufacturers Association of the Philippines Volcanic tuffs – natural and DTI. Burnt clays and shales – artificial Mixture of Type I Portland Cement with pozzolanic materials (fly ash, volcanic ash, silicia fumes)  Contains high amounts of silica that reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate hydrate. Used in general construction projects, improves durability and resistance to chemical attacks (sulfate and chloride resistance) 3. Calcium Aluminate Cement High-alumina Cement High proportions of calcium aluminates (CA, C12A7, CA2) Key reactive components – alumina and lime PORTLAND CEMENT Very rapid rate of development of strength - Most common type of cement and superior resistance to sea water and - Primary ingredient is concrete sulfate-bearing water. - Heated in a kiln Used when rapid strength gain is required. - Grinding the resultant clinker into a fine powder. - “Portland” comes from Portland Stone, a type of building stone in England. 4. Special or Corrosion-Resisting Cements Main Compounds of Portland Cement Designed to withstand chemical attacks that ordinary Portland cement cannot resist. Modifications a. Low in tricalcium aluminate (ettringite) b. Higher levels of alumina (resistant to acidic environment) c. Incorporation of Ground Granulated Blast Tricalcium and Dicalcium Silicate – most Furnace Slag (GGBFS) important because they are responsible for the strength of hydrated cement paste. Tricalcium Aluminate – undesirable because it lacks contribution. MANUFACTURING COMPANIES - C3A forms to become Calcium Sulfo- aluminate (ettringite) - Only benefit is it facilitates the combination of lime and silica Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite – does not affect the cement significantly. - If reacts to gypsum, accelerates the hydration of the silicates. The Alkalis – oxides of sodium and potassium. RAW MATERIALS - Source of silica for the formation of silicate phases. - Mixing of materials containing calcium - React with calcium oxide to form silicate carbonate and clay in proper rations. phases. 7. Marl – sedimentary rock containing mixtures of clay and calcium carbonate. - Natural blend of limestone and clay. - Single raw material source - Found near bodies of water because of very-fine grained particles. 8. Iron Materials – natural sources for the formation of C4AF (iron ore, mill scale, or iron oxides) - C4AF – fluxing agent that reduces the melting temperature in the Klin. 1. Limestone – Calcium Carbonate DETAILED MANUFACTURING PROCESS - Undergoes Calcination 1. Preparation of Raw Materials and Handling Calcium, the element of highest concentration in Portland cement, - gathered from a variety of calcareous raw - CaO reacts with other materials, they form materials (e.g., limestone, chalk, marl, the four main compounds known as – seashells, etc) clinker. -After the raw materials are quarried, they 2. Cement Rock – naturally occurring must undergo the next steps: crushing, sedimentary rocks. blending, grinding, and storage - Blend of limestone and clay - Initially, the raw materials are crushed using 3. Clay and Shale – contains silica, alumina, a cement crusher and iron oxides. - Crushing method (i.e., extrusion, cutting, 4. Gypsum – soft sulfate mineral composed of impact). calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 * 2H2O ) - To further pulverize the materials, the - Used in final grinding stage of clinker grinding mill is used. - Acts as a cement retarding agent/ prevent - The products are then stored in large silos the premature hardening of the cement. for additional processing. - “Flash Set” – cement harden immediately when mixed with water. 2. Calcination of Clinker - most important stage 5. Blast-Furnace Slag – by-product from the in the entire Portland cement manufacturing iron making process process - May be used as Supplementary Pretreatment for the pyro-processing stage, Cementitious Material (SCM) – reduce the there are two ways: the dry method, and the amount of clinker and lower carbon wet method. emissions. Difference: form of kiln feed. : raw material vs - Possess latent hydraulic properties – with water presence of activator (Calcium hydroxide) - Sources is iron, ore, coke and flux. a. Dry Process ~ 6. Sand and Sandstone – composed of silicon - Most efficient - utilizing hot exit gases from dioxide to form quartz. the pyro-processing system. - Other sources  of thermal energy for drying includes exhaust 2. Anhydride - anhydrous calcium sulfate Product gases, direct-fired coal, oil, and gas burners. uses: - - The dry materials are transported in silos Lime -medicinal purposes using conveying systems (e.g., screw conveyors, belt conveyors, drag conveyors, Gypsum -widely used industrial and building material bucket elevators, etc.). - b) Wet Process - mixed with water -produces Building Gypsum – building mold ash, all pumpable slurry ~ kinds of gypsum products. Pyro-processing system - heart of Portland Model Gypsum – less impurities, white color, manufacturing process – used for ceramic culture. Clinkers—these are gray, glass-hard, Floor Gypsum – mold ash engineering, spherically shaped nodules that range from plasterboard 0.32 to 5.1 cm in diameter. Whitewash Gypsum – made of cementing 4 stages of transformation to clinker material with appropriate amount of retarder. 1 Evaporation of uncombined water from raw materials 2.Dehydration Formed in the sea basins and lake basins 3. Calcination formed by evaporation of brine or hydration of 4. Reaction of the oxides anhydrite. Rotary kilns are elongated, cylindrical - The gypsum in oxidation zone of sulfide furnaces with a slight incline, lined with deposits is by sulfides. refractory material to safeguard the steel structure and maintain heat inside. As the materials progress through the kiln, they transform into cementitious or hydraulic DETAILED MANUFACTURING PROCESS minerals due to the rising temperatures. LIME 3. Blending and Grinding of Finished Portland Cement - Clinker will be grinded 1. Quarrying raw limestone Gypsum and other raw materials is added - 2. Preparing limestone for kilns by crushing and Then, the finish milling is completed sizing almost exclusively in ball or tube mills. 3. Calcining limestone 4. Processing the lime further by hydrating 5. Miscellaneous transfer, storage, and handling Lime and Gypsum Lime operations. Lime is sold as a high-calcium quicklime containing Kiln – heart of the lime plant not less than 90% of calcium oxide and from 0 to 5% - long, cylindrical, slightly inclined, refractory- of magnesia with small percentage of calcium lined furnace, through which the limestone carbonate, silica, alumina, and ferric oxide present and hot combustion gases pass as impurities. countercurrently. Carbonates of calcium or magnesium are - Coal, oil, natural gas – fired in rotary kilns. obtained from naturally occurring deposits. - Vertical or Shaft Kiln – upright heavy steel cylinder with refractory material. Gypsum: - Higher average fuel efficiency. 1. Raw Material - calcium sulfate dihydrate ((Ca (SO4) - Relatively low production rates 2H2O), also known as gypsum dihydrate - Coal cannot be used  - calcined qualified gypsum powder is sent to the clinker warehouse for storage or into the The total heat is divided into two parts: workshop to produce gypsum board, cement 1. Sensible heat raise to rock to and other gypsum products. decomposition temperature and latent heat of dissociation 2. Theoretical heat requirements per tone of lime produced. - dehydration of gypsum - About 15% of all lime is converted to hydrated (slaked) lime. Two types of hydrators 1. Atmospheric - the more prevalent type, are used in continuous mode to produce high-calcium and dolomitic hydrates. 2. Pressure - produce only a completely hydrated dolomitic lime and operate only in batch mode. GYPSUM 1. Crushing - Enters the crusher through vibrating feeder 2. Screening - Use a vibrating screen to separate incomplete large particles and impurities that mixed in crushed gypsum 3. Grinding - fed into the grinding mill uniformly and continuously by vibratory feeders for grinding 4. Calcination - direct contact between high-temperature hot flue gas of boiling furnace and gypsum raw materials to complete the calcination and dehydration of gypsum powder. 5. Storage and Transportation CERAMICS Mixed" bonding, which includes covalent, TYPES OF CERAMICS ionic, and metallic components. Traditional Ceramics They are made up of interconnecting atoms They are oxides, nitrides, and carbides 1. Clay - inexpensive ingredient, is found “A ceramic is a nonmetallic, inorganic solid”. naturally in great abundance, often mined without any upgrading of quality. a. Structural Clay – bricks for structural BRIEF HISTORY integrity b. Pottery – porcelain used for domestic Flint – variety of chert, which is itself cryptocrystalline 2. Refractories - materials designed to quartz. withstand high temperatures without melting - Cryptocrystalline quartz is simply quartz (a or decomposing and to remain unreactive polymorph of SiO2) that consists of and inert when exposed to severe microscopic crystals. environments (e.g. harsh chemicals and mechanical stresses). Fracture of Flint – conchoidal (shell-like) 3. Abrasives - ceramics that are used to wear, tear, grind, or cut away other material. - Made by percussion flaking – results in a 4. Cements - are materials that, when mixed piece (flake) being removed from the parent with water, form a paste that sets and cobble (core) by the blow from another stone hardens over time. (hammer stone) 5. Glasses - are non-crystalline silicates that Clay and Minerals – most common raw material to contain oxides such as CaO, Na₂O, K₂O, and make traditional ceramic goods. Al₂O₃. - Size is 2 micrometers - Mica – formed in nature by stacking layers Advanced Ceramics together to form sheets. 1. Structural Ceramics - include silicon nitride Glazes – Egyptians introduced glazing to seal earthen (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC), zirconia (ZrO2), ware pores. boron carbide (B4C) and alumina (Al2O3). - Coating fired objects with an aqueous 2. Electronic Ceramics - include barium suspension of ground quartz sand, sodium titanate, zinc oxide, lead zirconate, titanate, salts, or plant ash. aluminum nitride and HTSCs. 3. Nanoceramics - with structures and Development of Ceramics Industry properties at the nanometer scale. Josiah Wedgwood – led the revolution in ceramics 4. Nitrogen Ceramics - ceramics that incorporate nitrogen into their structure. “ basalte” in 1767. 5. Magnetic Ceramics - magnets that were the “jasperware” produced in 1775 consist of first known to humans. Ferrite is a term used for ceramics that contain Fe2O3. - one part flint, 6. Bioceramics - designed for use in medical - six parts barium sulfate, and dental applications. - three parts potters’ clay, and - one-quarter part gypsum.  stones. To manage particle size, the material is often treated through inclined vibrating screens. 3. Forming - Initial stage is tempering – results in a uniform , plastic mass of clay. - Water is added to the clay in a pug mill. a. Stiff-Mud Process – Water is introduced then de-airing process. CLAY b. Soft-Mud Process – Mixture is molded into bricks using molds. Silica and alumina constitute the base - Results to “sand-struck,” or “water struck,” elements of clay and are usually found in the c. Dry-Press Process - Clays with very little following proportions: about 50% for SiO2 plasticity are very well suited for this and 15–20% for Al2O3. technique. Expressed in parts per million (ppm) 4. Drying - Most of this water is evaporated in dryer chambers at temperatures between around 38 ºC and 204 ºC prior to the fire process starting. The length of the drying process, which varies depending on the type of clay, is typically 24 to 48 hours. - Heat is typically provided from the exhaust Product Uses heat of kilns. - To prevent brick cracking, heat and humidity - Construction and Structural Uses levels must always be properly controlled. - Environmental and Energy Efficiency 5. Hacking - Decorative Uses - Brick-loading a kiln car or kiln is known as hacking. - The size of the kiln determines how many RAW Materials bricks are on the kiln vehicle. 1. Surface Clays – thrust of older deposits or of - When brick is arranged face-to-face as more recent sedimentary formations. opposed to cross-set or face-to-back, the 2. Shales - subjected to high pressures until color of the brick will be more consistent. they have nearly hardened into slate. 6. Firing 3. Fire Clays - usually mined at deeper levels - The most common type is a tunnel kiln, than other clays and have refractory qualities. followed by periodic kilns. - Firing can be divided into five stages: final drying, dehydration, oxidation, vitrification, DETAILED MANUFACTURING PROCESS and flashing or reduction firing. 7. Cooling 1. Mining and Storage - Starts after the temperature reaches its peak - Blending produces more uniform raw and is kept there for a predetermined amount materials, helps control color and allows raw of time. material control for manufacturing a certain - The chilling process is a crucial step in the brick body. brickmaking process since it directly affects 2. Preparation color. - The material is run through size-reduction 8. De-hacking machinery to break up big lumps of clay and  - act of unloading a kiln or kiln car; robots are 3. Hexagonal Ferrites frequently used to carry out this task. - numerous family of related compounds - Bricks are graded, packed, and sorted. with hexagonal and rhombohedral crystal - Today, most brick comes packaged in self- structures. contained. - Forklift handling is made possible by the apertures in the cubes and packages. Ceramic Magnets (Ferrites) Product Uses: - Ceramics can be magnetic too and they Data Storage and Recording were the first magnets known to man. - Hard ferrites – motors, windshield wipers, Loudspeakers stripes on the back of the ATM. Tuners and Rod Antennas - Soft ferrites – cellphones, transcormer Microwave Components cores. - A magnetron—a ferrite in microwave oven - Ferrites can be further classified according to their structure: maghemite, garnets and hexagonal ferrites. RAW MATERIALS ferrites are usually iron oxide (𝛼-Fe2O3) and the oxide or the carbonate of the other 1. Soft Ferrites or Cubic Ferrites cations in the desired ferrite composition. (Maghemites, 𝜸-Fe2O3) - Adopt a spinel structure, where the oxygen ions form a cubic closepacked FCC lattice, and the metal cations occupy interstitial sites in this lattice. DETAILED MANUFACTURING PROCESS 2. Ferrite Garnets - Garnet is an example of gemstone. 1. Powder Preparation a) Milling - operation used to reduce the size of solid materials, such as ores of iron, to increase their processing effectiveness. - known as comminution, involves crushing and grinding the ore to achieve a particle size - Garnets also tend to be soft magnets but that allows for even distribution of particle are not as widely used as cubic ferrites: size and homogeneous composition. they are more expensive. - Ball mill – most common type b) Spray Drying - technique used to produce powders from liquid solutions, commonly employed in the preparation of ferrites. 2. Greenbody Formation a) Pressing - Dry pressing is a straightforward compaction technique  where dry powder is compressed GLASS INDUSTRY between a die and punch system. b) Slip Casting - an aqueous colloidal Glass suspension of ore powder, is poured into a mold with the desired shape. Water is Glass can be defined as an inorganic absorbed into the porous mold through substance that is continuous with and capillary action. analogous to the liquid state. - Gypsum is commonly used for molds Due to cooling from a fused condition, glass because it effectively absorbs water and attains such a high degree of viscosity that it allows for easy removal of the molded piece. becomes rigid for all practical purposes. 3. Sintering Neither fully solid in the crystalline sense nor - defined as the process of obtaining a dense, does it behave like a typical liquid. tough body by heating a compacted Often referred to as an "undercooled liquid" powder for a certain time at a temperature or an "amorphous solid" because it lacks a high enough to significantly promote defined melting point and does not crystallize diffusion, but clearly lower than the melting during cooling. point of the main component. - The ideal sintering process results in a BRIEF HISTORY fully dense material by elimination of the Obsidian – the most common of the natural porosity. glasses - Typically translucent and black. 4. Finishing Venice – held a monopoly on the glass - Finishing of sintered anisotropic ferrites industry. involves several key steps to achieve precise France – pioneered the production of plate dimensions and surface quality. glass. Hardness and brittleness, these materials America – first glassworks established in require the use of diamond tools for effective grinding. Jamestown in 1608. TYPES OF EACH GLASS 1. Soda Lime Glass - most widely used type of glass - Soda-lime glass is affordable and easy to work with, but it has limited resistance to heat and chemicals. 2. Lead Glass (Flint Glass) - high proportion of lead oxide (PbO) is known for its higher refractive index. - It has a brighter appearance and greater clarity, though it is softer and more susceptible to scratches 3. Borosilicate Glass - typically consist of about 10 to 13 percent boron trioxide (B2O3) and 80 to 83 percent silica.characterized by low expansion coefficients, excellent resistance to thermal shock, outstanding chemical stability, and high electrical resistance.  4. Optical Glass - @Lower Temperature – it becomes more rigid - Strict standard for lenses - Poisson’s ratio - describes how much a - Free of defects and offers a wide range of material contracts in one direction when refractive indices and light dispersion stretched in another. properties. 5. Tempered Glass - strengthened through a process of intense COMPOSITION OF GLASS heating followed by rapid cooling, making it up to four times stronger than standard glass. 1. Silica (SiO₂): primary constituent of most glass types. 2. Sodium Oxide (Na₂O): added in the form of soda (sodium carbonate) and helps lower the melting point of the glass. 3. Calcium Oxide (CaO): added as lime. Increases the durability of the glass, prevents to dissolve in water. 4. Alumina (Al₂O₃): improve chemical durability. 5. Other Oxides: - Boron oxide (B₂O₃), lead oxide (PbO), and magnesium oxide (MgO) RAW MATERIALS 1. Sand - composed almost entirely of pure quartz 2. Soda (Na2O) - mainly provided by dense soda ash (Na2CO3). - Sodium nitrate is particularly useful for oxidizing iron and speeding up the melting Properties of Glass process. Hardness 3. Feldspars - Ranks between apatite (5) and quartz (7) on - R2O*Al2O3*6SiO2, where R2O represents Mohs' hardness scale. Na2O, K2O, or a combination of both. - Usually determined by glass's ability to resist - Feldspars also provide Na2O or K2O along with SiO2, with the alumina helping to lower scratches. the glass's melting point and prevent Transparency and Optical Properties devitrification. - allowing light to pass through, making it ideal 4. Borax for optical uses. - Minor component in glassmaking, provides - Some specialized glasses can transmit both sodium oxide and boric oxide. ultraviolet or infrared light, while others are - Boric acid is used when only a small amount designed to block these wavelengths. of alkali is needed in the batch, though it is Elastic Properties about twice as expensive as borax. - Behaves elastically when subjected to stress, 5. Salt Cake with its elasticity linked to its molecular - commonly used as a minor ingredient in structure and temperature various types of glass. - @Higher Temperature – it acts like a viscious - believed to help remove unwanted scum liquid  from tank furnaces. Sulfates should be used Fourcault Process - glass is drawn vertically with carbon to reduce them to sulfites. from the furnace through a slot in a refractory - Arsenic Trioxide – added to help eliminate boat. bubbles - Used by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company 6. Cullet Colburn Process - begins similarly but bends - refers to crushed glass from defective items, the glass over a horizontal roller and moves it trimmings, or other waste glass. It helps through a horizontal annealing lehr before speed up the melting process while also cutting. recycling waste material. 7. Refractory Blocks Plate Glass - plate glass was made by pouring - specifically designed to withstand the harsh molten glass onto a cast-iron table, which was then conditions typically faced. rolled flat by a heavy water-cooled roller. Bottle Glass - Several types of machines are used to produce "parisons," which are partially formed DETAILED MANUFACTURING PROCESS bottles or blanks. A. Melting Suction-feed type - molten glass in a shallow, circular, rotating tank is drawn into molds by Pot furnaces – an ideal for producing small batches suction. of specialty glass or when it’s necessary to shield the melting batch from combustion by-products. Gob Feeder – one of the most significant advancements in automated glass - Melting glass in clay pots can cause manufacturing. contamination or damage to the container, Parison mold & Blow Table - movement is but platinum pots avoid this issue. powered by compressed air, Tank Furnaces - larger, continuously operating which drives reciprocating pistons systems where raw materials are fed into one end of a refractory-lined tank. Light Bulbs - The shape and size of the bulb are Regenerative Furnaces determined by an air blast rather than a mold. - Operates in two cycles using two sets of checkerwork chambers. - The process is periodically reversed, allowing Glass Tubing - Glass tubing is now primarily heat to be conserved and higher produced by machines using either the Danner or temperatures to be achieved. Each cycle Vello processes. lasts 20 to 30 minutes. Recuperative Furnaces Danner Process - molten glass is transferred - preheat incoming air continuously without from a furnace to a trough, where it flows over reversing the flow. a rotating mandrel to form a tube or rod. - Most heat loss occurs due to radiation. Vello Process - molten glass flows into a drawing compartment and drops vertically around a rotating rod or blowpipe. C. Annealing - Essential for reducing internal strains in all glass objects, whether they are machine- B. Shaping/Forming formed or hand-molded. 1. Maintenance at critical temperature – Window Glass - made through a labor-intensive reduces internal stress hand-blowing process, where a gob of glass was 2. Gradual Cooling – ensure the strains remain blown into a cylinder, cut, split, heated, and below the same threshold. flattened. - Lehr – annealing oven is designed to control the cooling rate. D. Finishing - Not every process is needed for each item. - Includes cleaning, grinding, polishing, cutting, sandblasting, enameling, grading, and gauging.