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100 (GENERAL SOCIOLOGY) Sources: Various introductory sociology books authored by the ff: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J...

100 (GENERAL SOCIOLOGY) Sources: Various introductory sociology books authored by the ff: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY 1. Sociology derives from the Latin socius, which means “group or society”, and logos, a Greek term which means “study of”. Broadly speaking, sociology is the scientific study of human societies. By society, it means people who live within some territory and share many patterns of behaviour. As they study society, sociologists pay attention to culture, a way of life including the totality of our shared language, knowledge, values, beliefs, material creations, and rules for behaviour. 1.1 In other words, sociology is the systematic study of human behaviour in social settings. 1.2 At the heart of sociology is a special point of view called sociological perspective, which systematically addresses the impact of society on human behaviour. a. A point of view that highlights how society affects the experiences of individuals. What we commonly think of as personal choice is affected by wider social forces around us. b. Charles Wright Mills (1916-1962) called this point of view the sociological imagination. 2. Importance of Learning Sociology: 2.1 Learning sociology provides us with what sociologists’ call the sociological imagination, an awareness of the relationship between who we are as individuals and the social forces that shape our lives. a. It is a way of looking at our experiences in light of what is going on in the social world around us. b. This helps us to appreciate the social and non-biological forces that affect, influence, and shape our lies as individuals, groups, and communities. 2.2 It helps us understand how social forces influence our goals, attitudes, behaviour, and personality. 2.3 It helps to cast aside our own biased assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and practices to become more critical, broad-minded, and respectful in our interpersonal and inter-group relationships. By learning sociology, we can be more humane and people-centered; we give high value to human dignity. 2.4 In addition to the theoretical benefits, sociology has certain practical benefits. There is what we call applied sociology, the application of sociological knowledge, methods, and theories to provide the solutions to the contemporary social pathologies. Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social pathologies. 2.5 Research by sociologists plays an important role in shaping public policy – the laws & regulations that guide how people in communities live & work. 2.6 It helps us also assess the truth of “common sense”. 3. Sociology & Other Social Sciences: Sociology is among the newest of the recognized social sciences. It occupies an important position among the social sciences which also includes anthropology, economics, history, political science, and psychology. These disciplines are sometimes also referred to as behavioural sciences, as they study the principles governing human social behaviour. 3.2 Similarities: a. Sociology is similar with all other social sciences in that it employs the scientific methods, and its major aim is production of scientific knowledge. b. Sociology is related to other social sciences in that all of them have more or less similar subject matter – study social behaviour of people, social phenomena. 3.3 Differences: a. Sociology differs from other social sciences in terms of its focus, approach, and method of study. Sources: Various introductory sociology books authored by the ff: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  Anthropology also examines human society just like sociology, but anthropology focuses on how human societies has changed over time. Anthropologists usually study past cultures and preindustrial societies that continues today, as well as the origins of humans whereas sociology seeks to understand contemporary social life (It should be noted here that this conventional distinction between the two is now disappearing). Further, sociology focuses mainly on quantitative whereas anthropology on qualitative research techniques. Perhaps, the methods of research are more important in differentiating the two. In addition, anthropologists tend to stay in the field for long period (several months or few years) while sociologists prefer brief stay (weeks to few months). Economics concentrates primarily on a single institution in society – the economy, whereas sociology focuses on a number of social institutions, one of which is the economy. Economists explore the ways in which people produce and exchange goods and services, along with money and other resources – the relationship between the supply of resources and the demand for them. History is concern with the events of the past & their significance for us today. Historical data can be used by sociologists to understand the present. Sociologists make use of the data that are provided by historians in order to form certain generalizations about society & social interactions. Political Science is concerned with political processes, power struggle & the governments of various societies. Political scientists study the workings of government at every level of society, and the exercise of power and authority whereas sociologists are interested in the study of the social interactions involved in human political activities. Psychology studies the human mind (mental & emotional processes), focusing primarily on individual behaviour. Rooted in biology, it is more experimental than the other social sciences. Psychologists are interested in the internal sources of behaviour, whereas sociologists are interested in the external sources of behaviour. Anthropology Economics SOCIOLOGY History Political Psychology Science Sources: Various introductory sociology books authored by the ff: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  4. Emergence of Sociology 4.1 The discipline of sociology grew up in the midst of significant social upheaval. The advent of the Industrial Revolution and urbanization in the early 19 th century led to changes in patterns of government, thought, work, and everyday life. People were moving from a primary reliance on religious explanations to more scientific ones; and the world of the village and farm was rapidly giving way to life in the city and factory. It was in this context that French sociologist Auguste Comte, in hopes of emulating what natural scientist did for nature, sought to establish a science of society, named it sociology in 1838 4.2 Sociology first developed in Europe (In particular: France, Germany, and England). 5. Founders of Sociology 5.1 Auguste Comte (1798-1857, French) a. Traditionally known as the “founding father of sociology”. Who actually named the field although he initially wanted to call it social physics b. Notable concepts: Positivism, a way of understanding society based on science – systematic, objective, and logical. He believed that application of scientific method or systematic investigation of human behaviour were needed to improve society. Comte’s Law of Human Progress or The Three Stages of Society: Theological Stage characterized the world prior to 1300. ✓ People took religious view that society expressed God’s will. Metaphysical Stage, which occurred roughly between 1300 & 1800. ✓ People saw society as a natural rather than a supernatural system. Scientific Stage, characterized by belief in science. c. Although he stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, he did not apply it himself. 5.2 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917, French) a. Durkheim was the first sociologist to apply objective “quantitative” approach or statistical methods to the study of social phenomena. b. Notable concepts: He defined sociology as the study of social facts. By social facts, he meant the patterns of behaviour that characterize a social group in a given society. They should be studied objectively. As a sociologist, he has as his major focus on the social forces that hold society together. Social solidarity – the degree to which members of a group or society feel united by shared values & other social bonds; also known as social integration. Durkheim has as his major focus on the social forces that hold society together. Society requires solidarity. Types of social solidarity: ✓ Mechanical solidarity– develops when people do similar work & have similar beliefs, values & sentiments that are strong among members of preindustrial societies. ✓ Organic solidarity – arises when the people perform a wide variety of specialized jobs & therefore has depended on each other like those that prevailed in industrial society. Suicide – the act of intentionally terminating one’s own life. Classifications of suicide: ✓ Altruistic – occurs when the individual places the group’s welfare above his or her own survival. ✓ Egoistic –occurs when people having loose ties to others. ✓ Anomic – results from man’s activities lacking regulation. ✓ Fatalistic – results from excessive regulation without integration. Sources: various introductory sociology textbooks authored by the following: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  Key determinants for understanding suicide: ✓ Social integration –the extent to which people are tied to their social groups. ✓ Social regulation –is defined as the normative or moral demands placed on the individual that come with membership in a group. His comparison of the suicide rates of several countries revealed an underlying factor: people are more like to commit suicide if their ties to others are weak. 5.3 Karl Marx (1818-1883, German) a. Marx introduced one of the major perspectives in sociology, called conflict perspective. Marx, like Comte, argued that people should make active efforts to bring about societal reforms. b. Notable concepts: According to Marx, economic forces are the keys to understanding society and social change. Economic Determinism – is the idea that society is based on economic factors; material conditions of life determine consciousness. Marx’s materialist approach claims that societies are defined by their economic systems. The dialectic – The basis of social change is conflict between opposing economic interests. He traced conflict between social classes in societies as a source of social change throughout history: In “ancient” societies, masters dominated slaves; in “agricultural” societies, nobles dominated serfs; In industrial-capitalist societies, capitalists dominate proletarians. The important point here is that Marx believed that society is structured around contradictions that can be resolved only through actual social change. He believed that conflict (especially class conflict) and revolution are necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. Social change, in the form of the overthrow of the capitalists (bourgeoisie) by the workers (proletariat), was inevitable from Marx perspective. ✓ Class conflict – is the struggle between the capitalists’ class & the working class over the distribution of a society’s wealth & power. ✓ Bourgeoisie Marx’s term for the capitalists’ class, comprises those who own & control the means of production- tools, land, factories, & money for investment that form the economic basis of a society. ✓ Proletariat Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass or workers who must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. 5.4 Max Weber (1864-1920, German) a. Another prominent social scientist. b. Notable concepts: Weber advocated a subjective “qualitative” approach in understanding human social action or what he termed as Verstehen (German term for “understanding” or “insight”) – the interpretive understanding of human social action from the point of view of those engaged in it. The ways in which people interpret their own behavior or the meanings people attach to their own actions and behaviors. In contemporary sociology, Weber’s idea is incorporated into the concept of sociological imagination. Weber disagreed with Marx’s claim that economics is the central force in social change. That role, he said, belongs to religion. As illustrated in his influential study Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism (1906), examined how belief systems (religion and by extension culture) might affect people’s actions & in turn the economic system of their society. Weber’s idealist approach emphasizes the power of ideas (especially beliefs & values) to shape society. Members of preindustrial societies are bound by tradition, the belief & values passed from generation to generation. Members of industrial-capitalist societies are guided by rationality, a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task. Sources: various introductory sociology textbooks authored by the following: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  He focused on the growth of large, rational organizations as the defining characteristic of modern societies. Increasing rationality gave rise to both the Industrial Revolution & Capitalism. Weber feared that excessive rationality, while promoting efficiency, would stifle human creativity. Weber provided us also with his concept of the ideal type and identified various characteristics of bureaucracy as an ideal type. He contends also that sociological research should be objective and value free (a view that a sociologist’s personal values should not influence social research). 5.5 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903, British) a. Spencer was famous for the organic analogy of human society. He viewed society as an organic system, having its own structure and functioning in ways analogous to the biological system. b. Notable idea: Spencer’s idea of the evolution of human society from the lowest (barbarism) to highest form (civilized) according to fixed laws were famous. Social Darwinism – the idea that society evolves to allow the survival of the fittest, a belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive & prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out. c. Note: Like Comte, Spencer did armchair philosophy instead of conducting scientific studies or what we now call research. Neglected Founders of Sociology: 5.6 Abu Zayd ‘Abd ar Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami (1332-1406, Yemenite Arab) a. Ibn Khaldun is widely considered as a forerunner of modern disciplines of historiography, sociology, economics, demography, and political science. b. Notable contributions: He emphasized the importance of empirical facts, developed a theory of change and identified tribal solidarity “ASABIYYA’’ as the driver of change. He is best known for modern readers for his” MUQADDIMAH”, a 7–volume books completed in 1378, is a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. The main theme of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental, and social facts that contribute to the analytical study of human civilization, its beginning, factors contributing to its development and the causes of decline. Thus, he founded a new science: the science of social development or sociology, as we call it today. 5.7 Harriet Martineau (1802-1876, British) a. Martineau is regarded as the first woman sociologist. b. She was interested in social issues and studied both in the United States and England. She was an active advocate of the abolition of slavery, and she wrote on many crosscutting issues such as racial and gender relations. She travelled widely, published a perceptive book called Society in America that was based on fieldwork at a time when empirical sociological research was uncommon. c. Despite her insightful analysis of U.S life, which is still worth reading today, Martineau’s research met the same fate as that of other female sociologists and, until recently, was ignored. Instead, she became known primarily from popularizing the ideas and writings of Comte by translating them into English. 6. Sociology is subdivided into many specialized fields of which some of are: 6.1 Applied sociology 6.6 Demography 6.11 Law and society 6.2 Clinical Sociology 6.7 Formal and complex organizations 6.12 Marriage and family 6.3 Collective behaviour 6.8 Human ecology 6.13 Medical sociology 6.4 Communities 6.9 Industrial sociology 6.14 Military sociology 6.5 Crime and delinquency 6.10 Islamic sociology 6.15 Political sociology Sources: various introductory sociology textbooks authored by the following: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.  6.16 Rural sociology 6.20 Sociology of Deviance 6.24 Sociology of Gender 6.17 Social psychology 6.21 Sociology of Disaster 6.25 Sociology of Media 6.18 Sociological theory and methods 6.22 Sociology of Education 6.26 Sociology of religion 6.19 Sociology of Development 6.23 Sociology of Environment 6.27 Urban sociology 7. A background in sociology is excellent preparation for success in many different careers. The possible careers in Sociology include the following job targets and opportunities: 7.1 Social Researchers (Universities, 7.5 Management Consultant 7.12 Analysts of Social Development Corporations, GO’s, NGO’s, and 7.6 Policy Analyst Programs PO’s 7.7 Public Relation Specialist 7.13 Human Resources Representative 7.2 Community Organizers and 7.8 Survey Researcher/Pollster 7.14 Teachers in the Social Science Development Workers 7.9 Guidance Counselor 7.15 Labour Relations Officer 7.3 Community Outreach Worker 7.10 Program Implementers 7.16 Parole & Probation Officer 7.4 Welfare and Rehabilitation Worker 7.11 Market Research Analyst Sources: various introductory sociology textbooks authored by the following: J. Henslin, J. Witt, L. Lindsey & S. Beach, J. Macionis, R. Schaefer, D. Kendall, M. Andersen & H. Taylor, and other local authors including I. Panopio & A. Raymundo, F. Zulueta, A. Abelos, J. Javier et.al, W. San Juan et.al. S. Colon. See other references for more enlightenment.