The History and Philosophy of Science Week 1 & 2 PDF

THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE WEEK 1 & 2  WHAT IS SCIENCE? The term science comes from the latin word ’scientia’, meaning “knowledge”. Science is not a frozen, static, or done activity; on the contrary, it is an intellectual activity that always ne...

THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE WEEK 1 & 2  WHAT IS SCIENCE? The term science comes from the latin word ’scientia’, meaning “knowledge”. Science is not a frozen, static, or done activity; on the contrary, it is an intellectual activity that always needs to be reconstructed.  WHAT IS SCIENCE? Scientific attitude according to Carl Sagan; If we lived on a planet where nothing ever changed, there would be little to do. There would be nothing to figure out. There would be no impetus for science. And if we lived in an unpredictable world, where things changed in random or very complex ways, we would not be able to figure things out. But we live in an in-between universe, where things change, but according to patterns, rules, or as we call them, laws of nature. If I throw a stick up in the air, it always falls down. If the sun sets in the west, it always rises again the next morning in the east. And so it becomes possible to figure things out. We can do science, and with it we can improve our lives. (Carl sagan, 59) https://www.worldhistory.org/science/  THE PAST, THE PRESENT, OR THE FUTURE? Scientific explanation or scientific activity deals with things that haven’t happened or been experienced yet and provides predictions and propositions about the future. And that is what is expected of science. THE PAST, THE PRESENT, OR THE FUTURE? What makes science ‘science’ is its ability to make predictions about the future. When it does not make predictions or fails to make accurate predictions, science will be nothing but a repetition of what is already known. If we cannot control the future, we cannot project what the future will bring.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Scientific investigations involve observing, collecting empirical evidence, using logical reasoning, inferring, and applying imagination.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OBSERVING VS. INFERENCING Observations are descriptive statements about natural phenomena that are ‘directly’ accessible to the senses (or extensions of the senses) and about which several observers can reach consensus with relative ease. Inferences are explanations about what is observed in the natural world but are the result of human interpretation as opposed to being directly observed by the sense.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE DATA Data are facts, figures and other evidence collected during a scientific investigation. When data are collected in a precise logical and consistent manner the data are called empirical evidence. EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE is data and observations that have been collected through scientific processes that also explain a particular observation. All scientific investigations involve the collection of relevant empirical evidence to support researchers’ conclusions.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE USING LOGICAL REASONING Scientists collect data, review their figures and look for patterns that explain their observations. Using logic and reason, they can then draw a conclusion based on the pattern they see. Scientists use logical reasoning to examine their data and reach conclusion that explain their observations.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE APPLYING IMAGINATION Applying imagination helps scientists to design experiments. It also allows scientists to solve scientific problems and to see patterns in data that no one else has noticed. Even though scientific knowledge is, at least partially, based on and/or derived from observations of the natural world (i.E. Empirical), it nevertheless involves human imagination and creativity. Science, contrary to common belief, is not a totally rational and orderly activity. Science involves the invention of explanations, and this requires a great deal of creativity by scientists.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE REASONING Objective reasoning is based on evidence. Because scientific reasoning relies on gathering and evaluating evidence. Subjective reasoning is based on personal feeling or personal values. Opinions are personal feelings.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IS SCIENCE SUBJECTIVE OR OBJECTIVE? Scientific knowledge is subjective. Scientists’ theoretical commitments, beliefs, previous knowledge, training, experiences and expectations actually influence their work. All these background factors form a mindset that affects the problems that scientists investigate and how they conduct their investigations, what they observe (and do not observe), and how they make sense of, or interpret, their observations. It is this individuality that accounts for the role of subjectivity in the development of scientific knowledge. Although objectivity might be a goal of science, subjectivity necessarily creeps into the development of scientific knowledge because humans do science.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE Science” derived from latin ‘to know’ The way of asking and answering questions about natural phenomena Pseudoscience = FALSE science Science does NOT investigate the “supernatural” or study morality, religion, etc  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE Science is based on empirical evidence and well-reasoned interpretation of data. Pseudoscience may make use of scientific data. But the conclusions of pseudoscience are based on either subjective reasoning or faulty beliefs rather than on careful examination of evidence.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE WHAT CHARACTERIZES SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS? Science and its methods characterized by a systematic approach to learning about the world. This approach relies on objective analysis of data obtained through careful observation. Because scientific investigations are well-reasoned, they can be repeated by other scientists to confirm results. ANY QUESTIONS?