GaDS Exit Exam 2023 (2015 E.C) PDF

MATERIALS FOR EXIT EXAM 2023 (2015 E.C) OF GaDS The 15 Selectede Courses of the Department of Governance and Development Studies were compiled in a single document Contributed by All Universities Concerned Re-compiled by: Exam Developers The Rationale to re-compiling in a single document:  Reducing the confussins over identifying the materials prepared by different universities and tutorial teachers as well.  Making easier to print out (if needed) particularly for those who may have no access to electronic divicies.  Enabling students to concentrate on a single and inclusive material in very manageable and conducive way. 1 Table of Contents Pages COURSE 1: POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT...................................................................... 8 Unit One.......................................................................................................................................... 8 Cocepts of Population Studies......................................................................................................... 8 chapter Two Impact of Rapid Population Growth on Socio Economic Development................. 16 chapter Three............................................................................................................................... 23 Population Polcies......................................................................................................................... 23 chapter Four................................................................................................................................... 33 Sustainable Development And Natural Resource In Ethiopia...................................................... 33 COURSE 2: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT............................................................................. 41 Unit One........................................................................................................................................ 41 Gender And Developmnet: An Introduction................................................................................. 41 Unit Two....................................................................................................................................... 46 Key Concepts And Issues In Gender And Development.............................................................. 46 Unit Three..................................................................................................................................... 58 Feminism, Feminist Theories And Development......................................................................... 58 Unit Four....................................................................................................................................... 68 Approaches And Strategies In Gender And Development............................................................ 68 Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................... 72 Conceptual Overview.................................................................................................................... 72 COURSE 3: REGIONAL GROWTH AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT....................................... 86 Unit One........................................................................................................................................ 86 An Overview of Some Conceptual Foundations........................................................................... 86 Unit Two....................................................................................................................................... 91 Some Basic Questions on Regional Growth and Development.................................................... 91 Unit Three................................................................................................................................... 103 Theories of Regional Growth and Development......................................................................... 103 Unit Four..................................................................................................................................... 125 2 Policies and Strategies of Regional and Local Development..................................................... 125 Unit Five...................................................................................................................................... 139 Local Economic Development.................................................................................................... 139 COURSE 4: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND PEACE BUILDING....................................... 153 Chapter One................................................................................................................................. 153 General Overview of Conflict..................................................................................................... 153 Chapter Two................................................................................................................................ 166 Conflict Analysis......................................................................................................................... 166 Chapter Thee............................................................................................................................... 182 Conflict Resolution Mechanisms (CRs)...................................................................................... 182 Chapter four................................................................................................................................. 193 The concept of Peace and peace building................................................................................... 193 Chapter five................................................................................................................................. 199 Indigenous Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Essence, Features and Limitations..................... 199 COURSE 5: INTERNATIONAL RELATION AND ORGANIZATION..................................... 205 Chapter One................................................................................................................................. 205 Basic Concepts, Evolution and Actors of International Relations.............................................. 205 Chapter Two................................................................................................................................ 224 Theories of International Relations............................................................................................. 224 Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................. 243 Understanding National Interest, Foreign Policy and Diplomacy.............................................. 243 Chapter Four................................................................................................................................ 254 Levels of Analysis in International Relations............................................................................. 254 Chapter Five................................................................................................................................ 262 International Organizations......................................................................................................... 262 COURSE 6: POLITICAL SYSTEMS AND GOVERNANCE IN ETHIOPIAN.......................... 267 3 Chapter One................................................................................................................................. 267 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 267 Chapter Two................................................................................................................................ 281 The Problematic Of Political Power............................................................................................ 281 Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................. 297 The Emergence Of The Modern Bureaucratic State................................................................... 297 Chapter Four................................................................................................................................ 310 The 1974 Ethiopian Revolution.................................................................................................. 310 Chapter Five................................................................................................................................ 337 Post Derg Ethiopia: Eprdf........................................................................................................... 337 COURSE 7: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT...................................... 362 UNIT ONE.................................................................................................................................. 362 Definition of Basic Concepts...................................................................................................... 362 Unit Two..................................................................................................................................... 376 State and Society......................................................................................................................... 376 Unit Three................................................................................................................................... 394 Government................................................................................................................................. 394 Unit Four..................................................................................................................................... 406 Constitution and Constitutionalism............................................................................................. 406 Unit Five...................................................................................................................................... 409 Political participation and Democratic Governance.................................................................... 409 Unit Six....................................................................................................................................... 443 Contemporary Issues: Good Governance, Rule of law and the Question of Development........ 443 COURSE 8: POLITICAL THOUGHT II....................................................................................... 453 Unit One:..................................................................................................................................... 453 Machiavelli‘s Political Realism.................................................................................................. 453 Unit Two:.................................................................................................................................... 461 Social Contract Theory................................................................................................................ 461 4 Unit Three................................................................................................................................... 489 Utilitarianism............................................................................................................................... 489 Unit Four..................................................................................................................................... 495 Emmanuel Kant and the Birth of Idealism.................................................................................. 495 Chapter Five................................................................................................................................ 498 Socialism, Marxism-Communism............................................................................................... 498 Unit Six....................................................................................................................................... 512 Anarchism................................................................................................................................... 512 Unit Seven................................................................................................................................... 518 Fascism and Nazism.................................................................................................................... 518 Unit Eight.................................................................................................................................... 524 Contemporary Political Thought................................................................................................. 524 COURSE 9: PUBLIC POLICY MAKING AND ANALYSIS...................................................... 536 Unit One:..................................................................................................................................... 536 Concepts of Public and Policy.................................................................................................... 536 Chapter Two................................................................................................................................ 547 Policy Analysis............................................................................................................................ 547 Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................. 552 Models for Policy Analysis......................................................................................................... 552 Chapter Five................................................................................................................................ 569 The Process of Public Policy Making......................................................................................... 569 Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................. 578 Policy change and continuity...................................................................................................... 578 Chapter Seven............................................................................................................................. 584 Globalization of National Policy Making: An International Perspective................................... 584 Chapter 8..................................................................................................................................... 592 An Overview of Public Policy Making in Ethiopia.................................................................... 592 COURSE 10: THEORIES AND PRACTICES OF GOVERNANCE........................................... 635 5 Chapter One Conceptualization of Governance.......................................................................... 635 Chapter Two Good-governance: A development Perspective.................................................... 688 Chapter Three Theories of Governance...................................................................................... 709 Chapter Four................................................................................................................................ 727 Models of Governance................................................................................................................ 727 COURSE 11: GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONAL REFORM............................................ 770 Chapter One................................................................................................................................. 770 Governance, Institutions And Institutional Reforms................................................................... 770 Section Two: Understanding The Public Sector........................................................................... 17 Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 31 Waves Of Institutional Reforms.................................................................................................... 31 Chapter Four.................................................................................................................................. 63 The Dynamics of Public Sector Institutional Reforms................................................................. 63 Unit Five...................................................................................................................................... 102 Governance and Capacity Building Reforms.............................................................................. 102 COURSE 12: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.......................................... 121 Chapter One................................................................................................................................. 121 Meaning and Scope of Public Administration............................................................................ 121 Chapter Two................................................................................................................................ 174 Administrative Thoughts (Organizational Theories).................................................................. 174 Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................. 187 Development Administration: Concept and Approaches............................................................ 187 Chapter Four.................................................................................................................................. 22 New Public Administration/ Management (/Npa/Npm)............................................................... 22 Chapter Five:................................................................................................................................. 47 The Ethics of Public Service/Ethics in Public Sector................................................................... 47 6 COURSE 13: HUMAN RIGHTS AND HUMANITARIAN........................................................... 57 Chapter One................................................................................................................................... 57 Conceptual and Theoretical Understanding of Human Rights...................................................... 57 Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 64 Classification, Basic Features Of Human Rights and States‘ Obligations.................................... 64 Chapter Three:............................................................................................................................... 80 The Human Rights System............................................................................................................ 80 Chapter Four.................................................................................................................................. 99 The Meaning and Foundations of Humanitarian Assistance........................................................ 99 Chapter Five:............................................................................................................................... 125 Actors in Humanitarian Assistance............................................................................................. 125 COURSE 14: DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND PRACTICES................................................ 139 Unit One...................................................................................................................................... 139 Development: An Introduction.................................................................................................... 139 Unit Two..................................................................................................................................... 151 Theories of Development and Underdevelopment...................................................................... 151 Unit Three................................................................................................................................... 185 Models/Strategies of Economic Growth..................................................................................... 185 Unit Four..................................................................................................................................... 201 Population Growth and Economic Development........................................................................ 201 COURSE 15: INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY (IPE)............................................. 217 Unit One...................................................................................................................................... 217 What Is International Political Economy (Ipe)?.......................................................................... 217 Unit Two Theories of International Political Economy.............................................................. 280 Unit Three The Trading System.................................................................................................. 330 Unit Four..................................................................................................................................... 352 The International Monetary System and the International Financial System............................. 352 7 COURSE 1: POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT Unit One Cocepts of Population Studies 1.1. Demography versus Population Studies Demography is the systematic and scientific study of human populations. The word demography comes from the Greek words δημoσ (demos) for population and γραφια (graphia) for ―description‖ or ―writing,‖ thus the phrase, ―writings about populations.‖ The term demography is believed to have first been used in 1855 by the Belgian statistician Achille Guillard in his book Elements of Human Statistics or Comparative Demography. There is fair agreement among demographers about the objectives and definition of demography. Demography is the scientific study of human population. It focuses on five aspects of human population: (1) size, (2) distribution, (3) composition, (4) population dynamics, and (5) socioeconomic determinants and consequences of population change. The boundaries of demography are fuzzy. There is, however, general agreement that the discipline has a core, variously referred to as demographic analysis or formal demography, which is concerned with the measurement of population phenomena, and a broader interpretative omponent, often termed population studies, seeks to understand and explain the patterns, differentials and tre nds revealed by demographic analysis and to assess their implications and linkages to other phenomena. Population studies tend to focus on relationships between demographic and non-demographic variables, and to the extent that demographers‘ views as to the scope of their discipline vary, they vary largely in their perceptions of the breadth of the field of population studies. The study of population is multidisciplinary in nature, involving an understanding of biology, genetics, mathematics, statistics, economics, sociology, cultural anthropology, psychology, politics, geography, medicine, public health, ecology, etc. 1.2. Development Studies and Population Studies Development Studies and Population studies were not traditionally seen as mainstream academic disciplines. At this time, however, they have their own professional associations, nationally and globally, and also have their own core of methods and materials. This section, therefore, focuses on the overview of these two disciplines and their relationship. 1.2.1. The growth of Development Studies 8 Dear learner, you have learned about development in different courses particularly in Development Theories and Practice course. However, in this section we will see an overview of development studies. Development Studies as a separate branch of economics in the first instance only emerged after the Second World War with the creation of the UN and the Bretton Woods institutions, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, in 1945. During the periods of 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, the need for development became mixed up with the standoff between the capitalist West and the communist Soviet Union and its satellites in Eastern Europe and China. Development in the Western world and by the international agencies was largely seen in term of Western capitalist development, with a linear development model that saw the rich Western nations, the First World, as leaders and the new nations, the Third World, as lagging cases that needed to emulate the Western experience, thus bypassing the socialist experience of the Second World. The most celebrated linear model of development of that early Cold War period was that of the American economic historian, Walt W. Rostow (1960), whose highly influential text, The Stages of Economic Growth, had a most telling subtitle, A Noncommunist Manifesto. By the 1960s and 1970s, however, academic discourse had taken a more critical stance and integrated the work of the Dependencista School of political economy. It was led by the Chilean economist Andre Gunder Frank. It emphasized on the nature of underdevelopment as an active process generating and accentuating international disparities that had their origins in patterns of economic and cultural exchange and dependency, largely on the ex-colonial powers. Since the end of the cold war Development Studies has experienced major changes in approach and substance. Not only has the global political climate changed from the Cold War to emphasize growing globalization and new global power relationships, but there is a widespread recognition of the relative failure of over 50 years of development in many regions – the number, if not the proportion of very poor people has been growing. While there are some obvious ‗success stories‘ – notably the NICs and resource-rich states – global disparities are widening as development is increasingly seen in the mechanistic and simplistic but relatively easily measured terms of the MDGs. The disappointment about the success of development, especially in the poorest countries and for the poorest groups, has been responsible for the growing emphasis on a new critical approach associated with anti-development and post-development theory in which there is less concern for global models and similarities but greater recognition of locally specific development policies and practices. Development Studies as a cohesive and systematic field of study has emerged and 9 continues to develop, becoming better integrated with the mainstream of the social sciences, and not only or even mainly with economics, as it was in the earlier periods. 1.2.2. The Growth of Population Studies Population Studies as a body of knowledge and cohesive theory has also experienced changes in content, context and approach, but over a longer period than Development Studies. The beginnings of Population Studies, though not conceptualized as such at the time, were set the late eighteenth century with the intellectual controversies over the causes and impacts of the French Revolution of 1789. T.R. Malthus himself developed his ideas about the nature of poverty as a response to the socialist writings of William Godwin, who argued that unequal distribution of power in society was the root cause of poverty. Malthus in reply argued that the poor were largely responsible for their own poverty, and that population growth would in the long run generate even greater poverty and inequality as the population would outstrip the resources on which they could survive(the debate will be discussed in detail in the third chapter of this module). When population was studies given much emphasis in history? Dear learner, as with Development Studies, Population Studies was given a great boost after the Second World War through the UN with the formation of its Population Division and its development of census and other data collection programs for member countries. With the increasing availability of census data, often for the first time, systematic population analysis become the norm for all countries, and the data that were collected mainly for government planning purposes also became the raw material for academic population analysis at the national scale. Furthermore, since the programs for census and other survey data collection were planned within the UN and other international agencies, the data they collected to similar specifications were internationally comparable. 1.3. The Sources of Demographic Information In this section will deal with the sources of Population data. The basic sources of demographic data are national censuses, registers, and surveys. National censuses and registers differ in that the former are conducted on a decennial which means every ten years (or, in some countries, quinquennial i.e. every five years) basis, while the latter, theoretically at least, are compiled continuously. Actually, registration data of population events are usually compiled and published annually or monthly, but they are gathered continuously. A census may be likened to taking a snapshot of a population at one point in time, say, once every ten years, and in this snapshot getting a picture of the size of the population, its characteristics, and its spatial distribution. Conversely, a register may be thought of as a continuous compilation of major population events, often births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and sometimes migrations. As a 10 birth or a death occurs, it is registered with the government; the registrations thus occur continuously. Censuses and registers are intended to cover the entire population. In a national census, everyone in the population is supposed to be enumerated, and all the demographic events (births, deaths, and so forth) that occur in the population are supposed to be registered. Surveys, on the other hand, are by definition administered to only a fraction of the population. Yet they often gather data on many of the items included in censuses and registers, plus additional items of interest to demographers not included in them. We now cover in some detail each of these three sources of demographic data. 1.3.1. National Censuses A national census is ―the total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing demographic, economic, and social data pertaining, at a specified time... , to all persons in a country or delimited territory‖. The principal objective of a census is to obtain data about the size, composition, and distribution of the population. A typical census thus includes information about the size of the population and its social and geographic subpopulations, as well as data on their age and sex composition band their educational composition (levels of literacy and educational attainment and extent of school attendance). Many censuses also contain information on economically active and inactive populations, including data on the industrial and occupational composition of the working population, as well as economic (salary and income) data. Other population data in a typical census include information pertaining to country or area of birth, citizenship, language, recent migration experience, religion, and ethnic heritage, which refers to group distinctions based on shared cultural origins. In the actual enumeration of the population, there are two ways to count people: by following a de jure method or by following a de facto method. In the case of a de jure enumeration, the census covers the entire territory of the country and counts persons according to their ―usual‖ or ―normal‖ place of residence in the country. A de facto enumeration also covers the entire territory of the country but counts each person in the population according to his/her geographical location on the day of the census undertaking. For instance, a person who resides with her family in Hawassa, but who is traveling on census day and happens to be counted in Shashemene, would be counted as a resident of Hawassa if the census was a de jure census but would be assigned to Shashemene if it was a de facto census. Canada and the United States follow a de jure approach, as do many European countries, for example, Austria, Belgium, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. Of the more than 230 countries conducting national censuses, however, the de facto type is much more common than the de jure. 11 De Facto and De Jure Populations At any moment in time any specific geographic area has a de facto population, which consists of all individuals who are present in the area. This concept is unequivocal but may not always be highly relevant. Consider the following groups: (1) persons usually resident and present; (2) persons usually resident but absent; (3) Persons temporarily present but usually resident elsewhere. The de facto population comprises (1) and (3), but excludes (2). Often one is interested in the usually resident, or de jure, population consisting of (1) and (2). The distinction may seem simple until one considers the cases frequently encountered in practice: To summarize, the following are the basic features of a population and housing census a) Individuals in the population and each set of living quarters are enumerated separately and the characteristics thereof are recorded separately. b) Universality within a defined geographic area/territory. The population census potentially covers the whole population in a clearly defined territory. It should include every person present and/or usual residents depending on whether the type of population count is de facto or de jure. In the absence of comprehensive population or administrative registers, censuses are the only source that can provide small area statistics. c) The enumeration has to be as simultaneous as possible. All persons and dwellings should be enumerated with respect to the same well-defined reference period. d) Censuses are usually conducted at defined intervals. Most countries conduct censuses every 10 years while others every five years. This facilitates the availability of comparable information at fixed intervals. Have you attempted? Good. As shown in the table below, Census has various advantages and disadvantages. Table 1.4- Advantages and disadvantages of Census Advantages Disadvantages  The coverage aims to be universal  The size and complexity of the exercise  The census provides an important means that the content and quality control sampling frame for subsequent surveys efforts may be limited and studies  The cost of carrying out a census means  The census can serve as a useful tool for that most countries can pursue an ‗nation-building‘, by involving the entire enumeration only every ten years population  There is usually a significant delay  Census data avoids the sampling errors between when the data are collected and that can occur with sample data the results released.  Censuses provide data for small areas,  Censuses are easily politicised – either by 12 such as districts and counties, which is groups who feel that they might be vital for the planning of services systematically undercounted by the exercise, or by parties found to be larger than that of other groups 1.3.2. Registration Systems United Nations define civil registration as ―the continuous, permanent, compulsory and universal recording of the occurrence and characteristics of vital events pertaining to the population as provided through decree or regulation in accordance with the legal requirements of a country.‖ Whereas censuses provide a cross-sectional (one point in time) portrayal of the size, composition, and distribution of the population, registration systems pertain to the population‘s demographic events (births and deaths and, in some places, migrations) and measure them as they occur. While censuses are static, registers are dynamic and continuous. Registers apply principally to births and deaths, although many countries also maintain registrations of marriages, divorces, and abortions. Some countries maintain a migration registration system. Strictly speaking, a population register is a list (i.e., a register) of persons that includes the name, address, date of birth, and a personal identification number. Some registers have been maintained for centuries, such as those in church parishes that record the baptisms and the deaths of the parishioners. In Europe, the Nordic countries and the Netherlands maintain some kind of population register, and many developing countries either have them in place or are planning to implement them. In Eastern Europe under the Communists, ―population registers were used for control (of the people) as well as for administrative purposes, and the successor regimes for the most part have not maintained them‖. The United States does not maintain any kind of national population register. The earliest example on record of a population register of families and related household events was in China during the Han Dynasty (205 BC–AD 220). A special demographic tradition of China and the East Asian region as a whole was population registration. Its major function, however, ―was the control of the population at the local level‖ and not necessarily the collection of continuous data on demographic events. Population registers are of interest to demographers because they contain birth and death records (certificates). But not all birth and death registrations occur in the context of population registers. In fact, since a large number of countries do not maintain them, the registration of many births and deaths occurs outside population registers. For most countries in the world, the recording of vital events, that is, births and deaths along with marriages, divorces, fetal deaths (stillbirths), and induced termination of pregnancies (abortions), are recorded in their civil registration systems. But these registration systems need not necessarily be population registers. Indeed, many are not. Although civil registration data are not 100 percent accurate and complete in the more developed nations, their quality is far better than that in the 13 poorer nations. Although civil registration systems in developing countries are ―seriously defective, it would not be correct that the data are of little value to demographers.‖ Demographers have developed special techniques for data adjustment and analysis, yielding a rough notion of trends and differentials in these demographic events. As articulated by Mary Ann Freedman and James A. Weed (2003: 960), ―Vital statistics form the basis of fundamental demographic and epidemiologic measures.‖ Vital statistics are the data derived from civil registration systems, as well as from the actual records of vital events. The modern origin of vital statistics and their registration may be traced to the English ordinance in 1532 requiring that parish clerks in London maintain, on a weekly basis, the registration of deaths and christenings. These reports were begun in response to the plagues of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries and were published in a nearly unbroken series for decades. Merchants used those data as a rough gauge of the likelihood of their clientele to flee to the countryside during epidemics. With regard to the modern era, the registrations of one‘s birth and death are fundamental human rights. The second clause of Article 24 of the International Covenant on Civil shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have a name‖. The ICCPR also states that ―for nation states to take appropriate measures to protect and enhance the life expectancy of their populations, they must have at their disposal accurate and detailed information about patterns and trends of mortality‖, thus also requiring death registration. What advantages come from registering vital events? The advantages of vital registration can be divided into two categories:  Legal  Statistical When a demographic event is registered, legal documents are issued as proof of this event. This confers a range of legal benefits upon the holder.  Registration of a birth establishes and protects the identity of an individual, and confers citizenship upon them. This legal recognition entitles the individual to state services and protection from exploitation.  The establishment of a legal identity (and the corresponding legal documents) allows individuals to vote, to be registered for education, and to move between countries (through the ability to apply for a passport).  In many countries valid death certificates are required before a burial permit can be obtained.  Valid death certificates are required before life assurance payments will be made.  In the event of a death, marriage certificates and birth certificates showing parentage are important in securing inheritance and land rights. 14 In addition to legal benefits for individuals, there are benefits for society which result from the availability of high quality, up to date information on births, deaths and causes of deaths.  Continuous registration of births and deaths allows for inter-censal population estimates.  Death registration and detailed cause of death classification are important for understanding the health of a population. This can then be used to formulate and prioritize effective public health policies and interventions.  The same information allows for monitoring of the effectiveness of public health interventions. This allows governments to ensure that tax money is spent in effective ways, and gives accountability to aid donors that donated money is improving the health of a population in the way that it was intended.  Vital registration also allows for monitoring progress towards targets, such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Without continuous registration of vital events, it is difficult to know whether progress is being made and whether the target is likely to be reached by 2015. 1.3.3. Surveys In an ideal situation a vital registration system will cover all the demographic events occurring in a population, and this should be considered the ultimate aim in terms of gathering vital statistics. However, complete vital registration systems are time-consuming and expensive to set up, and until this is achieved, sample registration systems can be used to gain high quality information on births and deaths. Demographers rely on a third source of demographic data, sample surveys, often because censuses and registration systems do not contain the extensive kinds of information needed to address some of the more critical demographic questions. This is particularly true with respect to the analysis of fertility, although it also applies to mortality and migration. When we contrast censuses and samples, census is a study comprising the whole population of interest, whereas a sample involves only a part. A population census refers more specifically to a complete count of the population of an area at a given time. Censuses may be combined with samples in various ways. On the other hand, Sample surveys are inexpensive, most flexible and rapid methods. Surveys are required for the collection of more detailed information. By administering surveys to carefully selected random samples of the larger populations, demographers are better able to uncover underlying patterns of demographic behavior than is possible with materials from censuses and registration systems. Here are some of the major surveys that are used by demographers. World Fertility Surveys 15 Beginning in the 1970s, coordinated cross-national fertility surveys were introduced in the statistical and demographic communities as an important source of fertility and related demographic information. Between 1974 and 1986, sample surveys to gather data on reproductive behavior and related social and psychological indicators were conducted in 62 countries, representing 40 percent of the world‘s population, under the auspices of the World Fertility Survey (WFS). Demographic and Health Surveys The WFS was followed by another coordinated international program of research, the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), with more than 200 sample surveys carried out in 75 developing countries since 1984. DHSs are nationally representative household surveys with large sample sizes (usually between 5,000 and 30,000 households). These surveys provide data for many variables in the areas of fertility, population, health, and nutrition. Typically, the surveys are conducted every five years to permit comparisons over time. Interim surveys are conducted between DHS rounds and have shorter questionnaires and smaller samples than the DHS surveys (2,000 to 3,000 households). CHAPTER TWO IMPACT OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH ON SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 2.1 Social Implications of Population Growth Rapid population growth in less developed countries is linked to many problems, including poverty, hunger, high infant mortality and inadequate social services and infrastructure (transportation, communication etc.) Rapid population growth may intensify the hunger problem in the most rapidly growing countries. Population growth can reduce or eliminate After completing this chapter the learner is able to:  Describe the social, economic and environmental implications of population growth.  Explain the relationship and effects of health on development.  Mention the widely used measures of economic development and explain their limitations.  List the social indicators of development food production gains resulting from modernization of farming. Population pressures may also encourage practices such as over irrigation and overuse of crop lands, which undermine the capacity to feed larger numbers. In some cases population growth is quite directly related to a social problem because it increases the absolute numbers whose needs must be met. For example some less developed countries have made enormous progress in increasing the percentage of children enrolled in school. However, because of population growth during the same period, the number of children who are not enrolled in school also increased because there were insufficient resources to meet the 16 growing need. Similar observations could be made about jobs and employment, housing, sanitation and other human needs such as water supply, transportation, energy requirement etc. These problem are compounded when large numbers migrate from rural to urban areas and increase the burden placed on already inadequate supplies and services. 2.2 Population Growth and Environment The relationship between population growth and environmental degradation may appear to be rather straight foreword. More people demand more resources and generate more waste. Clearly one of the challenges of a growing population is the mere presence of so many people sharing a limited number of resources strains the environment. Many of the world‘s population live in poor countries already strained by food insecurity; inadequate sanitation, water supply and housing; and an inability to meet the basic needs of the current population. These same countries are also among the fastest growing places in the world. A large proportion of these populations are supported through subsistence agriculture. As populations grow competition for fertile land and the used of limited resources increases. Meeting the increasing demand for food is probably the most basic challenge and the most salient population and environment crisis. Traditional agricultural farming in developing countries with increasing population growth rate, often involves the cultivation of fragile soils that are difficult to farm, such as dry lands, highlands, and forests. When farm lands expand towards fragile lands in order to keep pace with the needs of a growing population in a region, it can lead to deforestation, erosion and desertification. 2.3 Health and Development Development is movement of the whole system upward. Improving health conditions used to be low priority of least developed countries (LDC) governments. It was regarded as something the governments would like to do if possible, but not at the expense of more directly productive expenditure categories. Development specialists generally took similar view as far as known. No previous economic development textbook includes a chapter on health and nutrition. Recently, however, more attention has been devoted to relationship between health and development. One reason for this is the growing interest in equity- oriented development strategies for the basic human needs variety, in which provision of basic health services necessarily plays an important part. A second reason is that health expenditures, like education expenditures, are increasingly regarded as investments in human capital. The health- development relationship is reciprocal one. Proponents of health -sector programs often deny that development can or will do the job, arguing that special programs in nutrition, health care and environmental sanitation are also needed. Sometimes these proponents go so far to argue that development can be injurious to health, 17 or that provision of appropriate health programs can do the job by itself, even in the absence of significant over all development. Opponents of this view reply that health status is generally relocated to income level, and specific health measures often fail to have much effect when the surrounding socio- economic and physical environments are unfavorable to health. 2.3.1 Effects of Health on Development Better health is an important goal in its own right.Health increases the range of human potentialities of all kinds and is rightly regarded as a basic human need. Health is valued for its own sake. Everyone can benefit from better health in the present, and improved health for the young will lead to healthier population in the future. Like education, health services increase the quality of human resources both now and in the future. Better worker health can provide immediate benefits by increasing the worker‘s strength and ability to concentrate while on the job. Better child health and nutrition promote future productively by helping children develop in-to stronger, healthier adults. In addition they supplement the acquisition of productive skills and attitudes through schooling. It has been shown that healthy well- fed children have higher attendance rates and are able to concentrate better while they are in school. Unlike education, health expenditure also increase the quantity of human resources in the future by lengthening the expected working life. In this way too, they complement, since returns in education should be higher if people can be expected to work and even can for longer period. Besides increasing the quantity and quality of human resource, health also increase the productivity of non human resources. The most important example is the large tracts of land rendered uninhabitable or unusable by endemc diseases which had blocked access to certain areas were brought under relatively effective control in the 20th century. Malaria and yellow fever blocked access to many parts of Latin America, Africa, and Asia before these diseases were brought under relatively effective control in the 20th century. Even today schistasomiasis makes it unsafe for people to enter lakes and streams in sections in Africa, while trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness) restricts the range of livestock industry. Some of the causes of sickness and premature death in the LDCs that deserve more careful examination are environmental health problems, malnutrition and lack of medical care of adequate quantity, quality and type. The principal problem of environmental sanitation in LDCs is the contamination of the water supply, and sometimes also of food and soil, with human waste. This occurs in villages and cities alike. Although most urban residents have access to piped drinking water, the public water supply is often rendered unsafe by contamination in the distribution process as the result of a faulty or non- existent sewage system. 18 Few rural residents enjoy either piped water or decent sanitation. Many of the infectious diseases, parasitic and respiratory diseases that cause so much sickness and death in poor countries are waterborne. Typhoid, dysentery, and cholera are leading examples. A second type of environmental sanitation problem arises from housing with insufficient space; ventilation and access to sunlight, (more common in urban areas) promote the spread of air-borne diseases such as tuberculosis. Historically, improvements in sanitation seem to be closely associated with reduction in disease, becoming effective long before successive treatment have been discovered. Medical Services Most LDCs have too few health services, too poorly distributed. Public expenditure on health services are much smaller in developing countries even as a percentage of Gross National Product (GNP). Governments in the poorer countries were spending $ 2 per capita around 1980. The inadequacy becomes clear when we consider that in LDCs in contrast to USA; the public sector expenditure represents the bulk of the modern, western-style medical and health services. Low medical expenditures in the past have lead to inadequate stock of health facilities and manpower in most developing countries. Medical training in many of the poorest countries may not benefit society, because doctors are highly mobile and once trained, many emigrate to seek higher income elsewhere. In many cases increasing the supply of nurses and other health auxiliaries may be a better way to improve services. 2.3.2. Measures (Indicators) Of Development Ever since economists have tackled the development problems of the less developed countries, the principal yardsticks for measurement of economic development have been GNP, its components, and their growth. Despite the many problems with national accounting in developing countries, the nationals accounts have continued to be the main focus of discussions of growth, the allocations between investment, consumption and saving, and the relative influence of various sectors in total value added. GNP per head is widely accepted as the best single indicator of development, both historically and for international comparison, despite well known problems. Despite the overwhelming attention to growth, the deficiencies of GNP per head as an indicator of economic development have been apparent to many for some years. It has been pointed out that economic welfare comprises not only national income per head, but also its distribution and the degree of steadiness or fluctuation over time. Measurement problems become apparent when one attempts to make inter country comparisons of GNP/head. Part of the problem rises from the fact that official exchange rates do not measure relative domestic purchasing power, since a large portion of marked GNP does not enter into world trade. In addition trade policies often create distortions in nominal exchange rates, so that they fail to reflect the true value of even that proportion of GNP which is traded. 19 2.4 GNP and Social Indicators Several studies have indicated a high correlation between economic indicators, including GNP and social indicators. This might suggest that GNP can be used as a proxy measure of social development. The current discussion of basic-needs orientated development focuses on the alleviation of poverty through a variety of measures other than nearly redistribution of incremental output. Such a focus supplements attention to what is produced, in what ways, from whom and with what impact. Obviously the rapid growth of output will still be important to the alleviation of poverty, and GNP per head remains an important figure. What is required are some indicators of the composition and beneficiaries of GNP which would supplement the GNP data, not replace them. The basic needs approach, therefore, can be the instrument for giving the necessary focus to work on social indicators. Widely used Development Indicators include:  GNP PER CAPITA (GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT PER CAPITA).  GROWTH RATE OF GNP.  GNP is the market value of all the production in the economy during one year. Approaches to Measure GNP Output Approach Income Approach Expenditure Approach All three approaches measure flow of goods and services produced and consumed in the country from different perspectives. All expenditures must be income to someone else in the society. Purchase and sale of goods Output produced is the source of income and expenditure. So, all three approaches should provide identical values. How Good Is GNP /Capita As A Measure Of Development? Positive relationship between income and life expectancy Positive relationship between income and health/nutritional status Positive relationship between income and education Positive relationship between income and environment (Quality of housing, water supply etc). In general, the relationship between income and other variables indicating socio-economic development is positive. However, there are some exceptions. - Oil- rich middle-eastern countries. Their GNPs/ capita are high but the social indicators are low. - Sri-Lanka and China. Their GNP/ capita are relatively low but the social indicators are high. 20 GNP/Capita Or Its Growth Rate May Be A Misleading Indicator Of Social And Economic Development Because: It fails to indicate the pattern of income distribution in the country or the society. The measurement of GNP itself is problematic. All commodities, irrespective of its impact on human welfare, evaluated at market price and added together to derive GNP. Problem of international comparison. Adjustments can be made to GNP to make it a more Sensitive Measure of Social Welfare or Human Development These Adjustments Are:  Adjust GNP or GNP growth for income distribution in the country.  Adjust GNP for the value of goods not included in GNP calculations and the value of ―goods‖ added.  Purchasing power parity rate for international comparison. Social Indicators Of Development Include: Health -Life expectancy at birth. Education -Literacy.  Primary school enrolment (as % of population aged 5-14).  Food -Calorie supply per head or calorie supply as a percent of requirements Water supply -Infant mortality (per thousand live births).  Percent of population with access to potable water.  Sanitation -Infant mortality (Per thousand live births). –Percent of population with access to sanitation facilities. * Infant mortality is assumed to be a good indicator of the availability of sanitation and clear water facilities, because of the susceptibility of infants to water-borne diseases, and data on infant mortality are readily available than data on access to clean water. 3.4. Health Indicators and GNP It is observed that mortality is negatively related to GNP per capita. The Infant mortality Rate:-Falls from more than 100 per 1000 live births to only 12 per 1000 as one move up the income scale from countries with less than 300 a year to countries with more than 5000 per capita. Crude Death Rate:- Also, falls although less than one would expect, because of the younger population structure in the poorer countries. 21 Life Expectancy- Another way to look at the relationship between development and mortality in terms of life expectancy (Average number of years members of a given population are expected to live).Children born in 1980 in the poorest countries could expect to live only 53 years on average, while children born in the same period in the richest countries were likely to live 75 years on average. This difference provides one measure of the effect of economic development of health. Links Between Health and Income Investing In People There is overwhelming evidence that human capital is one of the keys to reducing poverty. Moreover, improvements in health, education and nutrition reinforce each other. But the poor generally luck access to basic services. There is too little investment in their human capital, and this increases the probability that they and their children will remain poor. To break this vicious circle, governments must make reaching the poor priority in its own right. Providing Access To The Poor Providing the poor with access to social services requires a clear commitment. This must be reflected in the infrastructure and organization of the social sectors and in the way they are financed. Much can be learned from decades of experience in countries at different levels of development and with varying needs. Infrastructure and Organization The biggest obstacle for the poor in gaining access to health and education services is the lack of physical structure, especially in rural areas. The urban bias in the provision of services affects both quantity and quality. The sheer lack of facilities makes necessary a continued expansion of appropriate services, especially rural health clinics and primary schools. This will almost certainly benefit the poor. Improving quality will require more funds, better use of the available resources and greater accountability in administration. Health: - The government is usually the dominant provider of health care, but in many countries the private sector also provides some (mostly curative) services. Although different countries have different needs several broad principles hold. First: - The state should take responsibility for health intervention that have a public- good character (example, clean air, and traffic) or that generate benefits to the community in addition to private benefits (example, immunization against communicable diseases). Second: - in curative care the main role of the state as a provider of services should be to supply basic services in those regions that the private sector is unlikely to serve. 22 Third: If a private delivery system is in place, the state should make sure that, the poor have access to basic care. In many countries, in other words, the government should continue to expand basic services but with a greater emphasis on access for the poor. CHAPTER THREE POPULATION POLCIES 3. Population Policy 3.1. Definition of Population Policy ? What is population policy? ________  Population policy may be defined as deliberately constructed or modified institutional arrangements and/or specific programs through which governments influence, directly or indirectly, demographic change.  The generality of the definition lends itself to varying interpretations. For any given country, the aim of population policy may be narrowly construe/interpret as bringing about quantitative changes in the membership of the territorially circumscribed population under the government‗s jurisdiction.  Additions to membership are effected only through births and immigration; losses are caused by emigration and by deaths. Concern with this last component is usually seen as a matter for health policy, leaving fertility and migration as the key objects of governmental interest in population policy.  More broadly, policy intent/intention/target may also aim at modification of qualitative aspects of these phenomena—fertility and international migration—including the composition of the population by various demographic characteristics and the population‗s spatial distribution.  Furthermore, governments‗concern with population matters can also extend beyond the borders of their own jurisdictions. International aspects of population policy have become increasingly salient in the contemporary world. 3.2. Types of Population Policy ? Distinguish between pronatalist and antinatalist population policy. Population Policies: Pronatalist  Throughout history, governments have attempted to modify the direction of population change, both upward and downward.  Pronatalist polices, aimed at more births and faster population growth, have been pursued/practiced in times and places where national well -being has been equated with population size. 23  It is sometimes the fear of depopulation, with consequent loss of national power and influence, that drives pronatalist efforts (This has been true of France, according to many observes.)  In light of the ― birth dearth/lack/shortage problems governments in some of the odd/peculiar countries now experiencing below- replacement fertility rates have made efforts to raise the birth rate. In Europe and Japan, especially, where attitudes toward immigration have historically been more hostile/unfriendly than in the United States higher birth rates offer the only means to hold an eventual decline in population Sweden has pursued a pronatalist policy, at least implicitly/totally/completely since the 1970s. Family benefits were made quite generous, in the form of cash payments, tax incentives, and extended maternity leaves. Japan has tried similar pronatalist policies- with a similar lack of sustained success.  Hungary, a formerly socialist nation, provides child allowances and maternity leave benefits, in addition to an extensive child- care network for working mothers.  Although in recent years the United States has seen its fertility rate drop to approximately replacement level, and even briefly below that level, there is no prospect of U.S. depopulation-- and thus no push for a pronatalist policy.  What differentiates the United States from nearly all other developed nations is a heavy rate of net immigration. Without it, the demography future of the United States would much more closely resemble that of the other industrialized countries. With it, the nation will see population expand significantly, owing to the number of immigrants themselves, their relative youthfulness, and their high rates of fertility. It immigration policy can be thoughts of as a form of population policy, then the United States has accepted (if only implicitly/unconditionally) a policy strongly favoring a larger national population. Population Policy: Antinatalist  Antinatalist policies, aimed at slower population growth have been through more likely to serve the economic and social interests of the people in a number of countries, generally poorer, high- fertility countries in Africa and in south and western Asia.  For over half a century policies, aimed at slowing population growth in developing countries have been discussed, debated, and, with wide variations, implemented.  An influential rationale for antinatalist policies was provided in a 1958 study by Ansley Coale and Edgar Hoover, who argued that high rates of population growth jeopardized/make vulnerable/endangered long- term economic development by diverting resources from growth -enhancing investments to the mere maintenance of population.  Reduced fertility, on the other hand, could speed economic development by freeing more resources for investment in productivity- enhancing activities. On the basis of this kind of thinking, the industrialized nations began funding population programs in the less developed countries (LDCs) in the 1960s and 1970s, with the United States playing leading 24 role. By 1997, 68 Nations were on record as desiring to limit their population growth; the majorities were in Africa.  power nations, less able to raise the needed public funds, have received considerable financial and technical support for family planning from the UN population fund (UNFPA) the united states Agency for international Development (USAID), non governmental agencies like international planned parenthood, and private foundation, such as the ford and Rockefeller foundation what seems to be agreed on all sides in that no single family- planning model fits every country each country‗s efforts must be tailored/modified/customized/adapted to its own traditions, culture, and perceptions of what needs to be done.  In addition to providing information about contraceptive choices and actually delivering contraceptive service to clients, some family- planning programs offer more general health services to women and children, and some engage in propaganda to change attitudes about family size delivering messages about the benefits of smaller families seem to have been quite effective in changing attitudes and behavior in some countries. 3.3. Global Population Policy  There is no super government with the authority to impose population a policy on sovereign states polices on sovereign states around the world. But the views of the international community on population matters can have an impact on the deliberations of national policy makers and on the academic, media, and political elites who shapes the policies. over the years, the most important forum for debating population policy has been a series of decennial/years, UN-sponsored world population conferences, Which now go by the official title of International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), These conclaves/council/convention, to which most governments send delegations, have been held in Bucharest (1974), Mexico city (1984), and Cairo (1994), with rather different messages conveyed to the world on each occasion.  At Bucharest ideology/ideas/beliefs/philosophy dominated the proceedings. The financial support of rich countries for family planning programs in the poorer ones was attacked by some delegates as self –serving. A number of national delegations made clear their opposition to policies aimed at lowering population growth rates. ―Economic development is the best contraceptive‗s‖ in the words of one slogan voiced at the conference. For the first time, an international population ―plan of action‖ approving. The plan included a numerical target for reduced birth rates in the developing countries, a statement of the ―basic human right‖ of all couples to make their own decisions about family size, and support for full gender equally in education, politics and economic life. 25 3.4. Population Policies: China and India What population policies have been followed by the world‗s two population giants, China and India? China with approximately 1.3 billion people in 1999 and a TFR now below replacement level at 1.8, has pursued a forceful national program of slower population growth for more than two decades. India, with around 1 billion people and a TFR of 3.3, has followed a more decentralized system of family planning in the years since India became the first developing nation to offer family- planning services in 1951. A comparison of the two cases will be instructive. China‗s fertility rate began falling first in its cities during the 1960s. There was no explicit national policy aiming for smaller families until 1971, when the wan xi shao campaign began. The translation is latter (marriage), Longer (intervals between births), Fewer (children). This program evolved in to the ― one child policy‖ of 1979 that has been the focus of so much international attention. Under the one --child policy. Couples are given incentives and disincentives to limit themselves to a single child. Urban couples with one child who pledge not to have any more children receive monthly child- support allowances until the child reaches the age of 14 promises of higher pensions in their own retirement and more spacious housing. The child receives preferential treatment in applying to schools and for jobs. in rural areas , a modified policy offers added monthly payment in cash and kind to couples who pledge to stop at on child. One- child families also get the same grain ration and the same size plots for private cultivation as larger families, thus reaping an indirect advantage. The Chinese provinces mayimplement additional policies on an individual basis, and some of these have included higher taxes on families who have more than two children, and even imposition on the parents of full maternity costs and medical and educational costs for such children. Whether the one- child policy has been a success is debatable. China once set a goal of capping national population at 1.2 billion by the year 2000. That limit has already been breached, and while the TFR has fallen below replacement level, china‗s current population is so youthful, with so many young adults entering their childbearing years, that the total population is bound to increase for a few more decades at least. Some also question how much of the fall in fertility has been due to the one child policy. Much of the extraordinary drop from a TFR of 7.5 in 1963 to 2.5 in 1983 occurred before the new policy was announced in 1979. And much of china‗s fertility decline might have occurred even in the absence of a strict antinalalist policy.But criticism of the one- child policy has been directed less at its efficacy than at its coercive features. When incentives and disincentives become strong enough, the policy looks like compulsory birth control. One of the policy‗s worst side effects, in a culture that values male children above female, can be seen in the neglect of infant girls and sex--selective abortion of female fetuses. India has been seeking slower population growth ever since its first five-year plan (for 1951-1956) called for the creation of family planning centers throughout the country. At that time, the Indian TFR stood at 6.0. Early efforts focused on information, education, and research in to contraceptive methods. Results were disappointing, with fertility declines seen mainly in a few states, in the upper classes, and in cities determined to do better, Indira Gandhi‗s government in 1976 revamped the program, increased the monetary incentives to participants, and suggested that state legislatures 26 consider passing laws that ordered compulsory sterilization after the birth of a couple‗s third child (one state actually did so.) controversy and violence ensued, and Gandhi‗s party was defeated in elections a year later. Her return to office in 1980 brought a renewed commitment to the national family- planning effort, as did her son‗s rise to power in 1984,-Rajiv Gandhi promised a broader, higher -quality national program, with more generous rewards to women who limited their family sizes But demographic results at the national level were and have continued to be , less than impressive. According to some observes, the programhas been overly bureaucratic inconsistent, and inflexible too much reliance has been placed on sterilization (first male, later female) rather than on offering couples an array of contraceptive choices. Fertility has declined in India but not nearly as quickly as policymakers once projected. Although they hoped at one time to see replacement level fertility achieved by the end of the twenty century, the revised goal is to reach that mark by the period 2011-2016. As with china, this will entail continued population growth for decades to come, due to the demographic momentum of large numbers of Indians about to enter of already in their reproductive years. How much of India‗s fertility decline is due to its population policy and how much to general modernization trends is unclear. The rates of fertility reduction very widely across the states of India. It has been noted that where fertility is highest for example, in the northern states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan, educational levels, especially for females, are low. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, by contrast, fertility is low (TFRs of 1.7 and 2.2, respectively) while educational levels and literacy rates are high. Women are accorded more economic rights and opportunities here than in other Indian states, and family -planning programs are less heavy handed than they are in states with much higher fertility rates. 3.5. The National Population Policy of Ethiopia The population policy that our country experiences is of antinatalist type. That is, it discourages population growth. 6.5.1. Rationale The analyses of the interrelationship between demographic factors on the one hand and developmental variables on the other reveal that demographic factors such as rapid population growth, young age structure and the uneven spatial distribution of the population fuelled by a continuing high fertility regime exacerbate/aggravate/intensify the severe state of underdevelopment that characterizes contemporary Ethiopian society. Underdevelopment manifests itself among others, in the following ways: a) low productivity in almost all sectors of the economy resulting in high rates of unemployment and underemployment and hence in absolute deprivation/scarcity and apathy/indifference, b) low accessibility of basic social services such as education, health and housing, c) the perennial/perpetual/recurrent problem of food insecurity affecting many parts of the country, c) high prevalence of maternal, infant and child morbidity and mortality - problems that are partially attributed to the low status of women and high fertility and d) low life expectancy at birth. 27 High fertility and rapid on growth exert negative influences on economic and social development and low economic and social development provide the climate favoring high fertility and rapid population growth. 3.5.2. Goals, Objectives and Strategies of the Population Policy This policy has for its major goal the harmonization of the rate of population growth, the capacity of the country for the development and rational utilization of natural resources to the end that the level of welfare of the population is maximized over time. The necessary of pursuing this goal is dictated by the fact that the rudimentary/basic state of technologies development combined with rapid population growth has made the effort of extricating/get out the country from its severe state of underdevelopment; and extremely difficult task. Significantly reduction of the rate of population growth by, primarily, addressing the problem of this fertility will, in the long run, be helpful in easing the pressure from contending/challenging demands of development resources. General Objectives The paths to the attainment of the goal of harmonizing the interrelationship between population dynamics and other factors affecting the probability of development are many. Given the assumption that there is a two way interaction between demographic factors of the one hand and other development indicators on the other, sound fertility reduction policy requires that action be taken in carefully selected areas in both spheres. Thus population policy aims at pursuing the following general objectives: a) Closing the gap between high population growth and low economic productivity through planned reduction of population growth and increasing economic returns; b) Expediting/speed up economic and social development processes through holistic integrated development programmes designed to expedite the structural differentiation of the economy and employment; c) Reducing the rate to urban migration; d) Maintaining/improving the carrying capacity of the environment by taking appropriate environmental protection/conservation measures; e) Raising the economic and social status of women by freeing them from the restrictions and drudgeries/hard work of traditional life and making it possible for them to participate productively in the larger community; f) Significantly improving the social and economic status of vulnerable groups (women, youth, children and the elderly). Specific Objectives 28 a) Reducing the current total fertility rate of 7.7 children per woman to approximately 4.0 by the year 2015; b) Reducing maternal, infant child morbidity and mortality rates as well as promoting the level of general welfare of the population; c) Significantly increasing female participation at all levels of the educational system; e) Removing all legal customary practices militating against the full enjoyment of economic and social rights by women including the full enjoyment of property rights and access to gainful employment; f) Ensuring spatially balanced population distribution patterns with a view to maintaining environmental security and extending the scope of development activities; g) Improving productivity in agriculture and introducing off-farm non agricultural activities for the purpose of employment diversification; h) Mounting an effective country wide population information and education programme addressing issues pertaining to small family size and its relationship with human welfare and environmental security. ? Mention the rationale for the population policy of Ethiopia. _________ ? List the specific and general objectives of the population policy of Ethiopia._____________ Strategies i) Expanding clinical and community based contraceptive distribution services by mobilizing public and private resources; ii) Promoting breast feeding as a means of dealing with the problem of childhood malnutrition and increasing the time span between earlier and subsequent pregnancies through IEC; iii) Raising the minimum age at marriage for girls from the current lower age limit of 15 to, at least, 18 years; iv) Planning and implementing counseling services in the educational system with the view to reducing the current high attrition/drop our rate of females; iv) Providing career counseling services in second and third level institutions to enable students especially girls to make appropriate career choices; v) Designing and implementing a coherent long term policy that is likely to create conditions facilitating an increased integration of women in the modern sector of the economy; 29 vi) Undertaking feasibility and experiments in respect to micro enterprises, and creating a system for providing technical and credit support to men and women who have the aptitude/skill/talent for engaging in small to medium sized private enterprises; vii) Making population and family life related education and information widely available via formal and informal media; ix) Establishing a system for the production and effective distribution of low cost radio receivers and information materials such as posters, flyer and all kings of promotional materials; x) Amending all laws, impeding, in any way, the access of women to all social, economic and cultural resources and their control over them including the ownership of property and businesses; xi) Amending relevant articles and sections of the civil code/rules in order to remove unnecessary restrictions pertaining to the advertisement, propagation and popularization of diverse conception control methods; xii) Ensuring and encouraging governmental and non-governmental agencies involved in social and economic development programs that they incorporate gender and population content in their activities by establishing within their organizations, appropriate units to deal with these issues; xiii) Establishing teenage and youth counseling centers in reproductive health; xiv) Facilitating research program development in reproductive health; xv) Developing IEC programmes specially designed to promote male involvement in family planning; xvi) Diversifying methods of contraception with particular attention to increasing the availability of male oriented methods; ? Identify the strategies of the population policy of Ethiopia._____________________________ 3.5.3. Major Areas of Population Activities Requiring Priority Attention a) Improving the Quality and Scope of Service Delivery: Existing service delivery systems are limited in both scope and diversity. At present family planning services are available only through the formal health structure. User choice of methods are restricted by the fact that the contraceptive mix currently available is limited. Steps will, therefore, be taken to expand coverage and afford greater choice of methods to users by: i) Expanding the diversity and coverage of family planning service delivery through clinical and community based outreach services; ii) Encouraging and supporting the participation of non governmental organizations in the delivery of population and family planning related services; iii) Creating conditions that will permit users the widest possible choice of contraceptives by diversifying the method mix available in the country b) Population Research, Data Collection, Analysis and Dissemination: Among activities to be given priority attention in programme development and implementation processes is improving and strengthening domestic capacity for generating, analyzing and disseminating demographic and population related information by making more domestic and external funds available to 30 institutions engaged in demographic and population related research and training. In addition, collaboration with foreign research and academic institutions will be actively sought. Further, research activities will focus attention on the study of the complex interrelationship between population factors and development variables. Thus the information generated this way will represent critical inputs in development planning processes and provide relatively more accurate bases for forecasting probabilities and trends of development. Work in this important area will be considerably facilitated by: i) Enacting laws/regulations making the registration of vital events (marriage, birth and death) compulsory; ii) Providing existing research institutions (Population Analysis and Studies Center (PASC), the Demographic Training and Research Center (DTRC), etc.) With the necessary technical and material support in order to enable them to process and disseminate data generated by censuses, sample surveys (inter-censal surveys, demographic and health surveys, household consumption surveys, labor force surveys, etc.). iii) In-service training for teachers and other development agents will be organized. a) Expansion and Strengthening Domestic Capacity for Training in Population: The requirements for high level technical personnel are currently met by sending men and women abroad for graduate training in demography and population studies as well as providing graduate training in population studies at the Demographic Training and Research Center of the Addis Ababa University. Training of family planning workers is currently provided by the Family Guidance Association of Ethiopia (FGAE) and the Ministry of Health through its institutions for the training of nurses, midwives and health assistants. But in view of the critical need for more trained personnel, expanded population programs envisaged in this policy it is necessary to expand existing domestic capacity. Accordingly:  Medical Schools  Nursing and health assistants schools  Junior Colleges  Technical and vocational schools (e.g. institutions for the training of home economists and teachers training institutions) in order to accelerate the integration of family planning with existing social services, particularly health. d) Expansion of IEC and Social Mobilization: Information, Education and Communication (IEC) pertaining to population and development issues play a vital role in increasing popular awareness of the issue of population and development and facilitated community participation in the implementation of programmes. An effective implementation of a carefully designed IEC program calls for the mobilization of all available institutional and manpower resources directly or indirectly involved in the sphere of population and development information. Specifically IEC policy will focus on formulating comprehensive policies and programs that will permit: 31 i) A wider and more systematic use of multi-media channels to facilitate the use of population IEC in expediting behavioral change relative to family size, reproductive behavior, reproductive health, family nutrition, personal and environmental hygiene; ii) The dissemination of population related information through community organizations, interest groups, political bodies, women and youth groups, NGOs, adult education classes, industrial and other work establishments where there is a significant concentration of worker force so on; iii) The incorporation of population and family life education topics as integral parts of formal education curricula at relevant levels of education; iv) The incorporation of population related topics in the package of information carried to the rural population by agricultural extension workers, informal community leaders, and other community level development practitioners; iv) The strengthening of the capacity of population and women's affairs units in relevant government development agencies to produce and disseminate IEC programmes. 3.6. Factors Affecting Population Policies What factors affect population policies? _____________________________________ There are a number of factors that influence the national population policy of a country. These factors are grouped into three categories. 1. Political factors- these factors include the following legal actions and regulations: a. Laws entirely or partly determined by population phenomena –these laws include such demographic phenomena as ethnic composition, population size, labor force composition and geographic distribution. b. Laws indirectly affecting population- these are laws related to marriage, family and economic matters: minimum age at marriage, rights and privileges of illegitimate/illegal/unlawful children, employment laws especially those related to the rights of women and children to work and c. Laws having a direct effect on population- these laws relate to regulations such as those directed towards fertility (contraception and abortion cases) and migration (encouragement and/or discouragement of emigration and immigration). Moreover, the implementation and readiness to set a better population policy rests/depends on the will, support and participation of political leaders and governmental commitment. 2. Social factors- the implementation of population policy can also be influenced by such social factors as ethical, moral and theological or religious convictions. This implies that the will, support and participation of religious leaders, the community participation and mass organizations determine the entire performance of population policy. 3. Economic factors:-the availability of financial resources and economic considerations and needs greatly influence the success of population policies. 32 CHAPTER FOUR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE IN ETHIOPIA 4. What is sustainable development? "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." The concept of sustainable development can be interpreted in many different ways, but at its core is an approach to development that looks to balance different, and often competing, needs against an awareness of the environmental, social and economic limitations we face as a society. All too often, development is driven by one particular need, without fully considering the wider or future impacts. We are already seeing the damage this kind of approach can cause, from large-scale financial crises caused by irresponsible banking, to changes in global climate resulting from our dependence on fossil fuel-based energy sources. The longer we pursue unsustainable development, the more frequent and severe its consequences are likely to become, which is why we need to take action now. So is it all just about the environment? Living within our environmental limits is one of the central principles of sustainable development. One implication of not doing so is climate change. But the focus of sustainable development is far broader than just the environment. It's also about ensuring a strong, healthy and just society. This means meeting the diverse needs of all people in existing and future communities, promoting personal wellbeing, social cohesion and inclusion, and creating equal opportunity. If sustainable development focuses on the future, does that mean we lose out now? Not necessarily. Sustainable development is about finding better ways of doing things, both for the future and the present. We might need to change the way we work and live now, but this doesn't mean our quality of life will be reduced. A sustainable development approach can bring many benefits in the short to medium term, for example: Savings - As a result of SDC scrutiny, government has saved over £60m by improving efficiency across its estate. 33 Health & Transport - Instead of driving, switching to walking or cycling for short journeys will save you money, improve your health and is often just as quick and convenient. How does it affect me? The way we approach development affects everyone. The impacts of our decisions as a society have very real consequences for people's lives. Poor planning of communities, for example, reduces the quality of life for the people who live in them. (Relying on imports rather than growing food locally puts the UK at risk of food shortages.) Sustainable development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues that affect all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities, for instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare and leisure facilities. (By encouraging more sustainable food supply chains, we can ensure the UK has enough food for the long-term future.) How do we make it happen? We all have a part to play. Small actions, taken collectively, can add up to real change. However, to achieve sustainability in the UK, we believe the Government needs to take the lead. The SDC's job is to help make this happen, and we do it through a mixture of scrutiny, advice and building organisational capacity for sustainable development. 4.1 The four pillars of sustainability The term sustainability is broadly used to indicate programs, initiatives and actions aimed at the preservation of a particular resource. However, it actually refers to four distinct areas: human, social, economic and environmental – known as the four pillars of sustainability. 4.1.1 Human sustainab

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