Test 1 Research Notes PDF

**Lecture 1 - Introduction** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Types of research** | **Definition** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Pure/basic research** | to underst...

**Lecture 1 - Introduction** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Types of research** | **Definition** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Pure/basic research** | to understand more, not involved | | | in the solution for a problem | | | (ex: a researcher investigates | | | whether different gender have | | | different preferences in | | | selecting a tourist destination) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Applied research** | conducted when a decision must be | | | made about a specific real life | | | problem | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Primary research** | involves the collection of | | | original data using an accepted | | | research methodology | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Secondary research** | no new original data is collected | | | but where the research project | | | draws on existing\ | | | \* any research activity includes | | | secondary research | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Deductive research** | you get a model and use it to | | | collect data, analyze data and | | *hypothesis / theory observation | compare the results = (begins | | accept/reject hypothesis* | with the theory and collects | | | empirical evidence to analyze | | *' all htm students are human | with a view to either accepting | | beings. David is a htm student, | of refusing the theory \| | | therefore we conclude that david | theorizing can take place before | | si a human being'* | the research, the **theory | | | testing approach** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **inductive** **research** | you start with no model, based on | | | obse4rvations, you collect data, | | *observation finding a pattern | and create the model (involves | | draw tentative conclusion* | researching a particular aspect | | | of tourism and leisure abd | | *' all managers that have ever | attemtping to derive theories | | been are human beings, therefore | from the data produced \| | | all managers are human beings/* | theorizing can take place after | | | research, the **theory | | | construction approach**) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ ** **Lecture 2 -- The Research Process** **Stages: Problem Discovery & Problem Definition Research Design Sampling Data Gathering Data Processing & Analysis Conclusion and Report** **\ **[How to Develop the Problem Statement] - State the problem. Don't just "talk about it" 1\. Identify the general research topic 2\. Formulate the research question(s) 3\. Convert the question into a statement 4\. Review the statement to include the nature of the problem being addressed in the study + objectives [Statement of Research Objectives] = operational Statements which indicate the nature of reasonable outcomes and feasibility of the study to be undertaken. They need to be **SMART**: *SPECIFIC* - concise, to the point & not vague *MEASURABLE* - can be measured in some way, where appropriate *ACHIEVABLE* - objective can be met & is practical *REALISTIC* - do you have the necessary resources to achieve the objective? For example: money, skills, etc? *TIME BOUND* - given limited resources, objective can be met in a timely manner Research Design: master plan \| framework for action \| specifies methods / procedures \| the 'roadmap' and guide Types of Research Design -- the nature of the problem will determine whether the research is exploratory / descriptive / causal. A diagram of a problem Description automatically generated +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **EXPLORATORY** | **DESCRIPTIVE** | **CAUSAL** | | | | | | *unaware of problem | *aware of problem -- | *problem clearly | | -- why question* | who, what, when, how | defined -- identify | | | questions* | cause and effect | | | | relationships* | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Initial research | Some understanding of | Such as predicting | | conducted to clarify | the nature of the | the influence of | | and define the nature | problem | price, package, | | of a problem | | advertising, and the | | | | like, on sales | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Does not provide | Describes | *INDEPENDENT | | conclusive evidence | characteristics of a | VARIABLES =* The | | and subsequent | population or | variables causing the | | research expected | phenomenon | change *(motivation)* | | | (consumers' | | | | attitudes, | *DEPENDENT VARIABLES | | | intentions, and | =* The variables that | | | behaviors or number | are affected by these | | | of competitors and | factor | | | their strategies) | *(performance)* | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | *investigating | *learning the extent | *The performance of | | reactions to idea of | of job satisfaction* | employees is | | a new method of hotel | | influenced by their | | budgeting* | | motivation to work.* | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sampling** | | | | | | *subset of a larger population* | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Probability sampling** | **Nonprobability sampling** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | known, nonzero probability for | probability of selecting any | | every element -- random sampling, | particular member is unknown - | | everyone has equal chances to be | nonrandom | | sampled | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Simple random sample \| | Convenience \| Judgement \| Quota | | systematic sample \| stratified | \| Snowball | | sample \| cluster sample | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Stages of data processing and analysis** - editing (checking and adjusting data) - coding (identifying/assigning a numerical score or other character symbol to previously edited data) - data entry - data analysis - univariate/descriptive (1 variable, no relationships between 2 or emore variables) - purpose more toward descriptive rather than explanatory. - bivariate (2 variables, subgroup comparisons) - purpose is largely descriptive; involves determining relationships (correlation) & differences (t-test) between the variables - multivariate (several variables) -- *religious attendance, gender, age* **Lecture 3 - Primary vs Secondary Data** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Primary Data** | **Secondary Data** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Definition** | collected directly | produced by someone | | | from subjects | else for primary | | | | usage and used by | | | | another researcher | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Advantages** | relevance & recency | quick and accesible | | | | | | | appropriate | low cost | | | 'population' studied | | | | | high quality | | | lack of other | | | | researcher bias and | non-reactivity | | | methodogical errors | | | | | sole source point | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Disadvantages** | reactive nature | Incompleteness | | | | | | | obtrusive nature | possible methodogical | | | | problems (bias) | | | time-consuming | | | | | [validity]{.underline | | | resource-expensive | } | | | | -- the extent to | | | | which the information | | | | collected truly | | | | reflects the | | | | phenomenon studied | | | | (relevant for my | | | | study?) | | | | | | | | [reliability]{.underl | | | | ine} | | | | -- the extent to | | | | which findings would | | | | be the same if | | | | repeated at a later | | | | date and/or with a | | | | different sample of | | | | subjects (1+1=2) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Sources** | Observation | personal & public | | | | documents | | | Questionnaires | | | | | administrative | | | Interviews | documents | | | | | | | | formal studies & | | | | reports | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Purpose** | For the problem at | For other problems | | | hand | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Process** | Very involved | Rapid and easy | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cost** | High | Relatively low | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Time** | Long | Short | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Secondary data Objective** - fact finding -- collecting descriptive info to support decision-making (identify consumer behaviour, trend analysis) - model building -- specifying relationships between variables based on secondary data sometimes using descriptive/predictive equations (estimate market potential, forecasting) - data based marketing -- maintaining a customer data base, name&address lists, tracking past purchases, tracking reponses from past efforts, data from numerous sources (frequent fkyers programmes such as Asia Miles or Hilton Honors) **Lecture 4 - Literature Review** **Purpose** - To help you avoid simply repeating work that has been done already - To show the path of a previous research - To indicate directions for future research - To help you generate and refine your research ideas - To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility **Types** **Explanation** ---------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Self-study reviews familiarizes and educates you with the literature Context reviews allows you to situate the current study within the overall literature and identify the current project's contribution Historical / Theoretical Reviews allows you to critically analyse the development over time of different theoretical frameworks that have been used to explain a phenomenon Methodological reviews allows you to critique the methodologies of past research studies Integrative Reviews allows you to examine and analyse a new research area and to identify the current status by drawing together as yet unconnected studies into one whole - which may be published as an article **Guidelines for evaluating and writing** 1.Start with a paragraph that describes its organisation and use subheadings to guide readers. 2.It should be presented in the **form of an essay (no annotated list)**. 3.It should **emphasise the findings** (not just research methodologies & names of variables). 4.Point out **trends and themes** in the literature. 5.Point out **gaps** in the literature. 6.Point out how your study **differs from previous** studies. 7.It should point out the **no. / % of people** who are affected by the problem. **Guidelines for electronic sources** 1.Make sure the version you are citing is the **most current** one. 2.Include **journal volume number** and **inclusive page numbers** (if information available). 3.Copy and paste **DOI (digital object identifier)** at the end of the reference without the "ending period". 4.If no DOI cite the home page URL. **\ ** **Tutorial 2 - Data Measurement Levels** A variable = characteristic being measured (by counting, enquiring, observing, computing etc.)  **Tutorial 3 - Descriptive Analysis** **Descriptive Analysis =** statistics that summarize/describe features of a data set (central tendency / dispersion) 1. **Central tendency (mean, mode, median) - The tendency of the data to cluster around a certain numerical value. Represents the center of distribution of a data set.** **Mean = the average (sum of all values divided by no. of values)** - **most common measure of central tendency** - **acts as balance point** - **affected by outliers (extreme values)** **Mode = value that occurs most often in s atrsing of values** **Median = middle value in ordered sequence** - **odd number of values median = middle value of sequence (1,3,5,7,9)** - **even number of values median = average of 2 middle values (1,2,3,4,5,7) (3+4)/2=3,5** 2. **Variability (range, standard deviation) - Reveals the differences between the values in a data set. Represents the spread, dispersion or variation in the data set.** **Range = difference between largest and smallest values in a data set** **St dev = compares each value with the mean** **If small number = dispersion is low and vice versa** **The highe the st dev, the lower the normal distribution** **\ **A diagram of a normal distribution Description automatically generated **Tutorial 4 -- Correlation Analysis** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Descriptive Statistics** | **Inferential Statistics** | +===================================+===================================+ | Organizing/summarizing data using | Using sample data to make | | numbers and graphs in describing | inference or draw a conclusion of | | the sample | the population by making | | | comparisons, test the differences | | (using graphs, histograms, pie | or relationships between the | | charts, means, median, mode and | variables | | range) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | To describe the characteristics | Uses probability to determine how | | of the sample | confident that the conclusions we | | | make are correct\ | | | (confidence intervals) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Inferential Statistics** An inference is to generalize or predict how a large group will behave based upon information taken from a part of the group (sample). Techniques which tell us how much confident we can GENERALIZE from a sample to a population and in testing hypotheses. **Statistical Significance -** refers to whether any differences observed between groups being studied are "real" or whether they are simply due to "chance", commonly refereed to as "p-value". Benchmark = 0.05 -- compare p with this =\> **If p \< 0.05 (95 % confidence level) =\> there is a significant relationship** **If p \> 0.05 (95 % confidence level) =\> there is no significant relationship** **Correlation Coefficient (r)** = A correlation coefficient is a number between **-1 and 1** which measures the degree to which two variables are linearly related.  - r rangers from -1 to +1 - if r=1 =\> perfect positive linear relationship - if r=-1 =\> perfect negative linear relationship - if r=0 =\> no correlation **3 steps for correlation analysis** 1. **check p/sig. (lower or higher than 0.05)** 2. **negative or positive relationship?** *look at number next to pearson correlation = coefficient* 3. **Strong or weak relationship?** *Look at green table above*