Technology - Final - Preclass PDF

SESSION 2 Reading 1: Principles inspiring circular economy (https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/schools-of- thought-that-inspired-the-circular-economy) - Circular economy: A systems solution framework that tackles global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, an...

SESSION 2 Reading 1: Principles inspiring circular economy (https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/schools-of- thought-that-inspired-the-circular-economy) - Circular economy: A systems solution framework that tackles global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution. It is based on three principles, driven by design: eliminating waste and pollution, circulate products and materials (at their highest value), and regenerate nature. - Schools of thought: o Cradle to cradle:  Michael Braungart and Bill McDonough  “All materials involved in industrial and commercial processes are nutrients, of which there are two main categories: technical and biological”.  Three principles:  It takes inspiration from natural systems, where there is no concept of waste. Biological nutrients should be safely returned to the soil, and technical nutrients should be used again and again of high quality.  Use clean and renewable energy: natural systems thrive on current solar income and human systems could do.  Celebrate diversity, which builds resilience in natural systems, and can do so in human systems too. No two places are the same: a diverse approach is often necessary to overcome the challenges and meet the opportunities o ered by di erent geographies. o The “performance economy”:  Walter Stahel and Genevieve Ready  Circular economy: impact on job creation, economic competitiveness, resources saving, and waste prevention  “Closed loop” approach  Product Life Institute  four main goals:  Product-life extension  Long-life goods  Reconditioning activities  Waste prevention  Functional service economy: selling services rather than products o Biomimicry:  Janine Benyus  Life has already solved most of the problems we are currently grappling with.   We can find solutions to human challenges by emulating nature’s patterns and strategies  A new discipline that studies nature’s best ideas and then imitates these designs and processes to solve human problems. o Industrial ecology:  The study of material and energy flows through industrial systems  Creating closed-loop processes in which waste serves as an input, eliminating undesirable by-products.  Systemic point of view: designing production processes so they perform as close to living systems as possible.  “Science of sustainability” o Regenerative design:  John T. Lyle  Foundation of the circular economy framework o Blue economy:  Gunter Pauli  The open-source movement brings together concrete case studies, initially compiled in an eponymous report handed over to the club of Rome.  “Using resources available in cascading systems, the waste of one product becomes the input to create a new cash flow”  21 founding principles  Solutions be determined by their local environment and physical/ ecological characteristics, with gravity as primary source of energy. Reading 2: Video. Eliminate Waste and Pollution (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc_icBPWoQo&t=1s) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v6m5fmM0XqA) - Transform linear system into a circular system, good for business, people, and the environment - 3 principles driven by design: o 1st: Eliminate waste and pollution:  Waste problem solutions:  Clean up  Design waste out  circular economy way o Examples:  Appel: eliminates plastic waste from protecting plastics used in food  Ecovative: eliminates polystyrene, by combining mushroom roots and low value agricultural feedstock. o Design buildings in a modular way makes it easier to give them new use once they are no longer needed o Pollution: design products and services to be circular, make better material choices, and cut out leaking toxins into the environment:  Climate change report: circular economy strategies reduce 20% of emissions from the production of goods (9.3 billion tons of CO2 in 2050) o 2 : Circulate products and materials: nd  In the circular economy, broken items are encouraged to be repaired instead of thrown away, and when no longer needed, they should be resold in the second-hand market.  Companies are also changing their business model, making returning items to them easier  Gerrard Street: headphones with 85% of materials to be reused  Club zero: reusable systems for takeaway packaging   Lizee: renting camping equipment for a small fee  Biological cycle (food, cotton): should be taken advantage by composting or anaerobic digestion  capture valuable nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium o 3rd: Regenerate nature:  We don’t want to maintain the biosphere as it is, or minimize its problems  we want to promote natural regeneration and make the world a better place  Orongo station: deforested land was given a second chance by building wetland to improve the habitat  Greenwave farmers: they use fishing tools like ropes and baskets. The harvested food is used as food, fertilizer, animal fed and bioplastics  Using regenerative farming methods helps build soil health and promotes the recovery of soil from the atmosphere  We can build regenerative built environments that purify water and produce more energy than they consume Video 3: Resource abundance by design (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcO1O99UoUs&t=2s) - Design: first signal of human intention - Cities & farms  one organism  Hiroshima: took years to build, and seconds to destroy - Negative entropy is biology - The only income of a planet is solar energy, carbon, and some nitrogen, and oxygen - To be a living thing you need: growth, income, and an open system of chemical operating for the benefit of the organism - Since 1850, 75% of aluminum made is still in circulation - Cadmium and lead are neurotoxins, mutagens, and carcinogens when they get in the biosphere - “A toxin is a material in the wrong place” - Upcycling: things get better every day, not just less bad - How much can we give for all that we get?  go from a world of limits, to one of generosity and abundance Video 4: Waste characterization (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTK5G0oLvOo) - 2 billion people live in areas that lack proper solid waste management systems  risk to health and the environment - Waste management approaches di er based on types and quantities of materials - Cities should perform waste characterization to understand the source, quantity, and composition - Common source categories include residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial - Cities use waste quantity data to develop waste generation baseline measurements, set targets, and estimate greenhouse emissions from the waste sector - Cities can model or measure waste quantities: o Modeling: cities can model the quantity of waste generated by using generic waste generation rates from neighboring cities with similar demographics and sources. It provides a general idea of waste volumes and types o Measurement techniques are more accurate than modeling but are also more expensive and time consuming. Example: waste audits. - Waste composition: variety of materials and products in the waste stream. - Steps for designing and implementing e ective waste reduction and management strategies: o Determine location of waste sort o Work with waste haulers to set aside waste o Set up containers labeled with waste categories o Sort waste o Weight containers and record generation by category  o Analyze results - Waste characterizations develop a waste profile, which decision makers use to plan future solid waste management activities. Video 5: the principles of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0ucT1KRiO4 - Important metals for electronics and machines are becoming scarce - Products can be screened to know how they damage the environment using Life Cycle Assessment: o All stages of a product’s life are considered: resource use, material processing, product manufacturing, distribution, use, and end of life o Has been standardized by the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) o How each product contributes to a set of environmental indicators, grouped in: damage to human health, damage to ecosystems quality, and resource depletion Video: Life Cycle Assessment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrJUpSiCOoU - Life Cycle Assessment: holistic approach that evaluates the environmental impact of a product. It quantifies the impact of each component of the product on the environment from raw material extraction to its end of life. - It quantifies its specific impacts and their e ects on: climate change, human health, ecosystem quality, and non-renewable resources. - Helps to inform decision makers allowing them to: reduce the negative impact of new products on the environment, identify what can be improved in existing products, avoid modifying one aspect that may cause more significant issues at another stage in a product’s life, and compare the environmental performance of similar products - It is designed to calculate the environmental footprint of products and compare them to the industry’s average. SESSION 3 Reading 6: What the R?! – The 9 R framework and what you should know about it: link. - Refuse, rethink, reduce, reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, repurpose, recycle and recover. - 9R framework: hierarchical approach for closing material loops. o Tighter loop (lower R): lesser external inputs needed to close it, and more circular strategy o Longer loop (higher R): less circular, and less preferred - Shortest loops: o Refuse, rethink, and reduce (R0-R2) o Eliminate the waste at the design stage itself through strategies like smart manufacturing, designing for disassembly, and material passports for building products. - Medium loops: o Reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, and repurpose (R3-R7) o Applied to extend the lifespan of materials in a building - Long loops: o Recycle and recovery (R8-R9) o Applied to building products labeled “waste” by the industry, requiring technical equipment and energy inputs to create a new value. o Do not maintain the original structure or value of the product, and can be reapplied anywhere. - The 9R strategy ensures that the materials, products, and buildings retain their highest value and stay relevant at the end of their service life - Using the right R-strategy during the conceptual and use stage of the building is essential to steer the industry to continue closing loops of value. SESSION 4 VIDEO 7: What happens to your recycling after it’s collected? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4LZwCDaoQM - Step 1: collection: o warehouses can handle materials like metals, glass, and hard plastics o After being collected, they are sorted - Step 2: sorting o use of sorting machines with very high-technology, and sorts 14 kinds of materials o it is then compressed into 1000–1500-pound block called a bale - step 3: reselling o bales are sold to 3rd party companies o Bale of aluminum = 800$ o Buyers: clean and process these materials to turn it into something new o Same amount of energy creates 1 can of new aluminum vs 20 cans of recycled aluminum o Recycling reduces oil usage: 1 ton of recycled plastics saves 16 barrels of oil - Step 4: recycling challenges: o EPA: 75% of waste is recyclable o Recycling rates in the USA are 34% o 1/3 of what is used is thrown to the recycling bin  o Lack of recycling = lack of public education o “Wish-cycling”: the act of throwing something not recyclable into the recycling bin o Plastic bags are low-quality plastic, making them hard to resell Video 8: chemical recycling: the end of plastic waste https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8f4eujBpig - Less than 9% of plastic waste is recycled - Used tires: big part of plastic waste problem - It takes 30 liters of crude oil to make a tire - 1st step: mechanical: shredding, separating, and pulverizing - Use of pyrolysis: at 400 degrees, rubber starts to become oil  separation between oil, gas, and solid - Components can be used to make biofuel, and the rest can be used for new synthetic rubber or plastic - Contaminated food packaging can’t be recycled mechanically - Using glass or metal leaves a higher carbon footprint  a paper bag can be 2 ½ times the carbon footprint of a plastic bag Video 9: how rotting vegetables make electricity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c1adiK8nLbA - Biogas: plentiful, low-tech, and it burns cleaner than any fossil fuel - 1.3 billion tons of food get thrown out every year - 1st step: chop up larger vegetables and load them onto a conveyor belt  Then they are shredded - A grinder crushes the mixture into pulp, pumped through underground tanks and into two digesters (use anaerobic bacteria) - Burning biogas to make electricity is a way to harvest gases before they enter the atmosphere - A byproduct created in this process: fertilizer - In most countries it is cheaper to keep burning fossil fuels - World’s biggest biogas plant: Denmark SESSION 5 Reading 10: BY 2060, global production and use of plastics are forecasted to triple. link - UN Global Plastics Treaty - The use of plastics will triple by 2060: the OECD expects plastics to reach 1,231 Mt by 2060, and to be applied to: - Recycled (secondary) plastics are expected to grow faster than primary plastics. Primary plastics are divided into biobased and fossil-based  more than 99% of primary plastics will still be fossil-based in 2026. - By 2060, 60% of global plastic use will be attributed to packaging, construction and vehicles. And the use of plastics will grow by a factor of 2 in OECD EU countries and the USA.  - The waste of plastics will triple by 2060: from 353 MTT to 1,014 in 2060. 50% of plastic waste will be disposed of into landfills, while the volume of recycled plastic is expected to nearly double. Only 1/5 of all plastic waste will be recycled by 2050. - By 2060, plastic leakage will double, its build-up in aquatic environments will triple, and its environmental and health impacts will have severely worsened. Bioplastics is expected to represent 0.5 of plastic usage.  At COP29 the worsening environmental crisis led to the proposition of urgent and resolute measures. - The petrochemical industry uses raw materials obtained from fossil fuels to produce items of our daily lives, therefore plastics. - Notion of “peak oil”: demand increases reaching its peak to subsequently decrease - The global petrochemical market to grow 7% annually from 2023 to 2030. - Ethane is cracked by a process known as steam cracking to be converted into ethylene, used in chemical products (plastics, resins, adhesives, and synthetic materials).  poses environmental and health risks due to their pollutants. - Plastic production has been enhanced by the low cost of fracked gas. - The petrochemical industry invests resources in lobbying e orts to influence policy and regulatory decisions. Video 11: solving plastic pollution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTcMPy6L88E&t=27s - By 2050, there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans - There is a need to eliminate plastic we don’t need or innovate so the plastic we need is designed to be safely reused, recycled, or composted. - We need to make sure the plastic we produce stays in the economy and does not become waste nor pollution Video 12: the plastic that biodegrades in your home compost (AI summary) link - Innovative research reveals a new compostable plastic and a protective gel for proteins, addressing environmental and storage challenges. - New biodegradable plastic can break down in home compost. - Researchers developed a protective gel for protein storage. - Enzymes embedded in plastics enhance biodegradability. - Current plastics require industrial conditions for breakdown. - Gel technology may benefit low-resource settings. - Engineered enzymes improve e iciency in plastic degradation. - Research aims to combat the plastic waste crisis. - The new compostable plastic could revolutionize waste management by allowing home composting, reducing landfill waste. This innovation is crucial in tackling the global plastic crisis. - The protective gel for proteins o ers a simpler, more cost-e ective storage solution that bypasses traditional cold chain methods, potentially improving accessibility in low-resource environments. - Embedding enzymes in plastics increases their biodegradability at lower temperatures, addressing a significant limitation of current biodegradable plastics that require high-heat conditions. - The development of this technology could lead to significant energy savings and reduce the carbon footprint associated with traditional plastic production and disposal. - In low-resource settings, such innovations could enable better access to essential medicines and therapeutics that require stable storage conditions. - Research into enzyme e iciency and stability is critical for ensuring the long-term viability of these solutions in real-world applications. - The combination of these advancements presents an opportunity for a more sustainable approach to both packaging and medical storage, aligning with global sustainability goals. Video 12: the vision for a circular economy for plastic: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmTQA-RNygQ - Plastics are versatile materials, but the way in which we use it is wasteful  95% of plastics’ material value is lost after 1 single use - Broken linear packaging take, make, waste system  millions of tons of packaging end up in landfills, incinerators and the environment - If we follow this path, by 2040 the volume of plastic on the market will have doubled, and its flow into the ocean will have tripled/quadrupled (up to 600,000,000 tons) - Need to shift the focus on innovations and business models to create a circular economy for plastic, where it never becomes a waste - Plastic’s circular economy key points: o Elimination of problematic or unnecessary plastic packaging through redesign, innovation, and new delivery models is a priority  eliminate packaging or rethink it, as products can reach consumers without generating more packaging waste o Reuse models are applied where relevant, reducing the need for single-use packaging: reusable plastic should be explored and applied through dedicated systems. Shifting to reusable plastics helps eliminate plastic waste and pollution while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Packaging can be designed to: (1) o er increased quality and functionality, (2) reduce costs of production and logistics through standardizing packaging formats, and packaging and transportation by supplying compact refills; (3) drives sales by increasing brand loyalty through deposit and reward schemes and allowing customers to personalize products or packaging. o In a circular economy, all plastic packaging that we use is designed to be 100% reusable, recyclable, or compostable: plastic reuse or compost needs to work in practice and at a scale that means reusable, recyclable and compostable packaging must be designed to fit within a real- world system. Creating this packaging means combining redesign and innovation in business models. o All plastic packaging is reused, recycled, or composed in practice: no plastics should end up in the environment. We need to make sure that all plastic is collected and reused/recycled/ composted which requires much more and better infrastructure all around the world o In a circular economy, the use of plastic is fully decoupled from the consumption of finite resources: the need for virgin oil must be drastically reduced by eliminating the plastics we don’t need and maximizing the use of recycled plastics where we do use them. Plastics should be made from renewable resources, ensuring they are responsibly managed and environmentally beneficial o All plastic packaging is free from hazardous chemicals, and the health, safety, and rights of all people involved are respected: plastics contain many chemicals besides the plastic polymers, some added on purpose to improve their characteristics; while others are added unintentionally during the manufacturing process and can have e ects on human health. SESSION 6: FASHION, FOOD, AND AGRICULTURE Reading 13: The environmental price of fast fashion - Fashion industry produces 8-10% of global CO2 (4-5 billion tons annually), is a major consumer of water (pollutant of 20% of industrial water), pollutes water (35% responsibility). - Global per-capita textile production has increased from 5.9 kg to 13 kg per year, from 1975 to 2018  there has been an increase of 2% yearly in clothing-production demand. - Due to the decrease in prices, there has been an increase in the amount of clothes one person owns and buys. - SDGs 12 & 13 relate to the fashion industry to seek more sustainable practices and to take note of its environmental impacts  - The fashion supply chain is a vertical disintegration and global dispersion of successive processes: from agriculture (natural fibers) to petrochemicals (synthetics), manufacturing, logistics and retail. - Polyester dominates production due to its characteristics and cost-e iciency. - A 1% increase in garment transportation from ship to air cargo, can result in a 35% increase in carbon emissions. - Use of water in the fashion industry amounts to 79 billion cubic meters, with an average of 200 tons of water per ton of textile.  uses 44 trillion liters for irrigation - The textile industry produces 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions. - The best way to decrease CO2 emissions is to substitute the creation of synthetic fibers, with natural fibers, as they create less CO2  but they can create more emissions during the use phase. - Most chemicals used are associated with spinning and weaving and wet processing. - USEtox model: nested, multicompartment transport and fate model that has been applied to over 4,000 substances. It uses “comparative toxicity units” (CTU) to estimate the impact of chemical pollution on human health and the environment. - 15% of fabric used in garments is wasted, depending on garment type and design, fabric width and surface of design. - Problem: pre-consumer waste called deadstock  unworn garments that are unsold and designated as waste. - Key approaches to create a new paradigm for sustainable fashion: limits to growth, closing the loop and focusing on waste - Future projections rely on assumptions of limit-less growth which does not consider finite resources and waste generation associated with unsustainable practices - Promoting a circular economy is another approach to improve environmental sustainability - Collaborative consumption and sharing economies have emerged, with leasing and renting clothing - Recycling processes: mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, thermal recycling, - Strategies to design garments that minimize cutting waste and put nearly all o cuts into production: invisible remanufacturing (fabrics are placed in invisible sections of the garment), visible manufacturing (fabrics are placed in external visible places) and design-led manufacturing (o cuts are used to decorate the garment). - One approach to lowering fashion’s environmental impact is to shift the system from linear (take, make, dispose) to circular with the following three approaches: narrowing (e iciency), closing (recycling) and slowing (reusing). - Another is to consider new business models such as renting, leasing, updating, repairing and reselling, all of which enable longer product lifetimes while simultaneously proposing a new, slower lifestyle for consumers Video 14: you can rent and share these clothes - Circular models design the product in a way that you can reuse most of the components, which can save a lot of materials, reduce waste while reducing production costs - Subscription-based model is the future  this business model is expanding - Second-hand garments are being included in online apps and webs to make it feel as if you are buying brand new items - New concept: refresh (keeping clothes fresh), repair, and remake. - Future of fashion: exploring new ideas and testing concepts  work with customers and find the right partners to be fully circular Reading 15: the jeans redesign - Making jeans requires pesticides, water and energy; and are di icult to remake and recycle after used  - Circular economy for fashion: products is designed to be used more, made to be made again, and made from safe and recycled or renewable inputs - “The Jeans Redesign”: o Circular design can become the norm: participating brands redesigned at least 40% of their jean’s portfolio. o The solution pathways are clear: participants applied the principles of circular design to other garments, stating that circular design solutions are not a technical capability question, but a design choice. o Without systems change, the progress that has been made to redesign products will not be fully realized: models such as rental, resale, repair and remaking keep garments’ use at the highest level. Video 16: Need for bioeconomy (turning waste into snacks) - Juice pulp can be turned into snacks (byproduct) - The remaining waste is used for animal feed, reducing to almost 100% the waste of the facility Reading 17: food waste nature news (food loss and waste) - Food loss and waste (FLW) is central to the food systems crisis we are living, made by “depletion of natural resources”, “contribution to climate change”, and “hindering food security”. - Highest to lowest FLW: fruits/vegetables, fish/seafood, cereals, dairy, and meat/poultry. - Food loss is greater in developing countries, action must be taken at all levels (international, national, and regional) SESSION 7: WASTE TO ENERGY Video 18: traditional waste-to-energy: - There are always leftovers from recyclables (what we throw in the recycling bins)  this can end up in landfills but can also be taken to waste-to-energy plants where it is turned into power - Nonhazardous residential and commercial waste is combusted in a specialized chamber which drives a turbine which makes electricity. - State-of-the-art emissions control systems  cool, collect and clean combustion gases - In the process, metals (steel and aluminum) are recovered for recycling and residual materials are reused or disposed of in a landfill Video 19: present and future waste to energy: - Massive innovation in heavy transport is needed to achieve “net zero” emissions. - Take waste fats, oils and greases to turn them into low carbon fuels  renewable naphtha, diesel, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) - Renewable inputs (feedstocks) are pumped into a processing unit where reactors remove impurities [hydrotreating] giving paraphinic diesel, which is then cracked and isomerized into clean renewable fuels (JET, Naphtha, and diesel) SESSION 8: E-WASTE ENERGY Video 20: phones as e-waste example: - Billions of new phones are produced every year, but turn into “old” phones 2 years later - E-waste: old phones, TVs, computers, and tablets  fastest growing source of waste on the planet, of toxic metals in landfills. - E-waste can create toxic air and water Video 21: Agbogbloshie (Gana) – the biggest e-waste site - Agbogbloshie: biggest e-waste landfill in Africa  most toxic area in the continent: high levels of toxins in the food and water which people eat  people look for precious metals (cooper, aluminum, zinc) in e- waste to make a living - Developed countries are not supposed to ship electronic waste into developing countries, but a loophole allows reused/repaired objects to be sent - E-waste site workers are exposed to carcinogenic fumes, which have serious health implications. SESSION 9: Reading 22: 5 circular economic business models that o er a competitive advantage - Circular economy will be predominant in the 2030s - Why is a circular economy the future? o The EU aims to transition to a circular economy to make Europe cleaner and more competitive o It is encouraged by societal pressure o By 2029, supply chains will not be allowed to produce waste o Eco-system digitalization will be a key advantage in a circular economy - Five key circular business models: o Circular inputs:  Renewable, recycled, or highly recyclable inputs are used in production processes  Waste becomes an asset, it is not a liability  Expect lower costs of production input  does not have to be mined from scarce resources  comes from excess and recycled materials  Born-circular designed products become the end-of-current-usage loop  benefit from high material and components recovery rates  Tires: when it reaches its recycling phase, all original materials will be extracted and used to produce new tires. o Sharing economy concept:  Maximize how idle assets are used across a community  provide customers with a ordable and convenient access to products and services  Higher utilization percentage of expensive assets. o Product as a service:  Shift of focus from volume to performance  maximize usage factor and useful life  Gain access to potential untapped opportunities for businesses  i.e. remanufacturing/ refurbishing market  Providers have the responsibility and economic incentive to dispose safely of mechanisms o Product use extension:  Products are designed for repairability, upgradability, reusability, easy disassembly, reconditioning, and recyclability of their components.  Born-circular designs have a continuing income stream throughout the product’s usage cycles o Resource recovery:  End stages of the usage cycle: recovery of embedded materials, energy and resources from products at the end of use  Extraction of products recoverable value  economic interest - Companies must adapt to survive: o Companies founded in the linear economy will have di iculties when adapting to circular economy o “Do nothing strategy”: not enough  companies must adopt circular elements in the business model, start pilot initiatives, and build a transition strategy with the circular economy concept as a key driver. Video 23: Ikea: Why the future of furniture is circular - World today: rapid climate change, dwindling resources and unsustainable consumption - Circular economy: products are not just products, but also resources - Design products easy to repair, renew or upgrade them where every piece is repurposed or remanufactured, and at the end, recycled. SESSION 10: SPACE GOV ACTIVITY Reading 24: Space material - NASA’s Artemis mission will shuttle humans back to the Moon - A.C. Grayling’s book: Who owns the moon?  quest for resources  human greed and national rivalries could set o a “lunar gold rush”  call for an urgent reexamination of laws governing space exploration - Laws governing space exploration: 1967 Outer Space Treaty, Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 - “Scramble for Africa”: tale of what might happen if humanity’s worst instincts are let loose - Institutional and state governance mechanisms for managing outer space will become increasingly relevant. - Space commercialization is a deep national security concern for many states Reading 25: Space and Cyber a airs game introduction: - Space debris will in the future make space unusable and trap humans on earth. - Kessler syndrome: when a piece of debris destroys a satellite or spaceship, the collision will generate thousands of new pieces of debris, making the space debris problem worse  tragedy of the commons - Cyber warfare o creates an attribution problem, if a country attacks another in outer space, it is di icult to identify the attacker and retaliate  reduces the risks for countries that want to disrupt their rivals’ economies or political systems through cyber-attacks o introduces a strategic ambiguity: rules of cyber warfare are largely undecided so countries must figure out as they go, which can increase the chances of misunderstandings and miscalculations, leading to greater instability and conflicts and politics o can create a costly arms race that leaves everyone worse o - interdependence: when there are two or more problems, the threat of conflict in one realm can create opportunities for cooperation in other realms. When there is a high level of interdependence in social interactions, players may be able to overcome challenging collective action problems. o issue linkage: linking di erent issues together to try to reach a better outcome.