TECHNICAL WRITING.pdf

1. Review on the Structure of English with emphasis on: 1. S-V agreement Subject-verb agreement refers to the grammatical rule that the subject and verb in a sentence must match in number (singular or plural). This means that a singular subject requires a singular verb, while a plural...

1. Review on the Structure of English with emphasis on: 1. S-V agreement Subject-verb agreement refers to the grammatical rule that the subject and verb in a sentence must match in number (singular or plural). This means that a singular subject requires a singular verb, while a plural subject requires a plural verb. 20 Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement in the English Language Here are the twenty unavoidable rules concerning subject-verb agreement in English sentences. 1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept. 1. The cat is sleeping. 2. The cats are sleeping. 3. He runs every morning. 4. They run every morning. In the first example, the singular subject “cat” agrees with the singular verb “is.” In the second one, the plural subject “cats” agrees with the plural verb “are.” For the third example, the singular subject “he” agrees with the singular verb “runs,” while in the fourth example, the plural subject “they” agrees with the plural verb “run.“ 2. Do not get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect the agreement. The dog, along with his puppies, is playing in the yard. In this sentence, “dog” is the subject, and “is” is the singular verb. Although the phrase “along with his puppies” comes between the subject and verb, it does not affect the agreement. The verb “is” remains singular to agree with the singular subject “dog.” The team, including their coach, is practicing for the upcoming tournament. In this example, “team” is the subject, and “is” is the singular verb. The phrase “including their coach” is inserted between the subject and verb but does not alter the agreement. The verb “is” remains singular to match the singular subject “team.” 3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement. 1. The book on the table belongs to me. 2. The books on the table belong to me. The prepositional phrase “on the table” is placed between the subject “book” and the verb “belongs.” However, the verb remains singular to agree with the singular subject “book.” In the second example, the prepositional phrase remains the same, but the verb “belong” becomes plural to match the plural subject “books.” These examples illustrate that prepositional phrases placed between the subject and verb generally do not affect the agreement. The agreement is determined by the number (singular or plural) of the subject, and the presence of prepositional phrases does not alter this agreement. 4. When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the subject will always be placed after the verb, so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly. 1. There is a cat in the garden. 2. There are several books on the shelf. In both examples, the subject (“a cat” and “several books“) follows the verb (“is” and “are“) after the word “there.” Care must be taken to identify the subject correctly in these sentences since the typical subject-verb word order is reversed. 1. Here comes the bus. 2. Here are your keys. In these examples, the subject (“the bus” and “your keys“) comes after the verb (“comes” and “are“) following the word “here.” When encountering sentences starting with “there” or “here,” it is important to identify the subject correctly as it comes after the verb. This helps maintain subject-verb agreement and ensures the sentence’s grammatical accuracy. 5. Subjects don’t always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use. 1. Is the book on the table yours? 2. Are the dogs in the backyard barking? In both examples, the subject (“the book” and “the dogs“) comes after the verb (“is” and “are“) in the interrogative sentences. Accurately identifying the subject is crucial to determine the appropriate verb form.  1. Have you finished your homework? 2. Did they go to the park? Here, the subjects (“you” and “they“) are positioned after the auxiliary verbs (“have” and “did“) in the questions. Properly identifying the subject enables us to select the correct verb form. These examples highlight the importance of accurately identifying the subject in questions before deciding on the appropriate verb form. Subjects in questions can appear after the verb or auxiliary verb, and being mindful of this allows for correct subject-verb agreement in sentence construction. 6. If two subjects are joined by and, they typically require a plural verb form. 1. John and Sarah are going to the party. 2. The dog and the cat are playing in the yard. In both examples, the subjects (“John and Sarah” and “the dog and the cat“) are connected by the conjunction “and.” As a result, a plural verb form (“are“) is used to maintain subject-verb agreement. 7. The verb is singular if the two subjects are separated by and refer to the same person or thing. 1. The captain and coach is the same person. 2. Bread and butter is a common breakfast choice. 3. Playing the piano and singing is her passion. Here, “the captain and coach” refers to a single individual who holds both roles, so the verb “is” remains singular to match the singular subject. In the second example, “bread and butter” is considered a single entity or combination, so the verb “is” remains singular. For the third one, “playing the piano and singing” represents a singular activity or passion, so the verb “is” remains singular. 8. If the words each, every, or no come before the subject, the verb is singular. 1. Each student has a textbook. 2. Every house needs maintenance. 3. No one knows the answer. These examples demonstrate that when the words “each,” “every,” or “no” are used before the subject, the verb that follows remains singular to maintain the subject- verb agreement. 9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also the verb is singular. 1. The dog or the cat is responsible for knocking over the vase. 2. Neither the teacher nor the students was aware of the change. 3. Either John or Sarah is going to the party. 4. Not only the flowers but also the vase belongs to Alice. The examples above highlight that when the subjects connected by “or,” “nor,” “neither/nor,” “either/or,” or “not only/but also” are both singular, the verb remains singular to maintain the subject-verb agreement. 10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of the preposition determines the form of the verb. 1. Some of the cake is missing. 2. Some of the cakes are missing. 3. Half of the pizza has been eaten. 4. Half of the pizzas have been eaten. 5. None of the money was recovered. 6. None of the coins were recovered. These examples demonstrate that when noun and pronoun subjects like “some,” “half,” “none,” “more,” “all,” etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase, the object of the preposition determines the form of the verb, leading to either plural or singular verb forms accordingly. 11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement. 1. Five kilometers is a long distance to walk. 2. Two hours is the duration of the meeting. In these examples, the units of measurement “kilometers” and “hours” are treated as singular nouns, and the verb “is” is used in its singular form to agree with it. 12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, the verb is plural. 1. The dogs or the cats are making a lot of noise. 2. Neither the students nor the teachers want to go on the field trip. 3. Either the apples or the oranges are on sale. 4. Not only the birds but also the squirrels are gathering food for winter.  When the subjects connected by “or,” “nor,” “neither/nor,” “either/or,” or “not only/but also” are both plural, the verb must also be plural to maintain the subject-verb agreement. 13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb. When one subject is singular and the other is plural, connected by the words “or,” “nor,” “neither/nor,” “either/or,” or “not only/but also,” you should use the verb form that agrees with the subject that is nearest to the verb. Here are examples that demonstrate this rule: Neither the dogs nor the cat likes the rain. Not only the teacher but also the students have completed the assignment. In the first example, the singular subject “cat” is closer to the verb “likes,” so the verb takes the singular form “likes”. On the other hand, the plural subject “students” is closer to the verb “have completed,” so the verb takes the plural form “have completed” to agree with the nearest subject. 14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. 1. Everyone is excited about the party. 2. Somebody has left their umbrella behind. 3. Nobody wants to be left behind. 4. Each of the students has submitted their assignment. These examples illustrate that indefinite pronoun, such as “everyone,” “somebody,” “nobody,” and “each,” require singular verbs to maintain the subject-verb agreement. 15. *Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both) that always take the plural form. 1. Few of the students were present in class today. 2. Many have tried, but few have succeeded. 3. Several have volunteered to help with the project. 4. Both of them are talented musicians. The examples above illustrate that the pronouns “few,” “many,” “several,” and “both” always take the plural form of the verb to ensure subject-verb agreement. 16. If two infinitives are separated by and, they take the plural form of the verb. 1. To walk and to chew gum require great skill. 2. To learn and to grow are essential to life.  3. To be and to do are two different things. 4. To see and to be seen are two different experiences. 5. To know and to understand are not the same thing. In each of these sentences, the two infinitives are joined by the conjunction “and.” The verb that follows the conjunction must agree with the subject of the sentence, which is the two infinitives. Since the two infinitives are plural, the verb must also be plural. In this case, the verb is “require,” which is in the plural form. Remember that this rule only applies when the two infinitives are separated by “and.” If the two infinitives are not separated by “and,” then the verb can be singular or plural, depending on the context of the sentence. 17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the singular verb form of the verb, but when they are linked by and they take the plural form. 1. Singing is my favorite hobby. 2. Playing video games is a waste of time. 3. Learning new things is exciting. In each of these sentences, the gerund is the subject of the sentence. The verb that follows the gerund must agree with the subject, hence the verbs are singular in these circumstances. However, when two gerunds are joined by “and,” the verb must be plural. For instance: 1. Learning new things and meeting new people are exciting experiences. 2. Swimming in the ocean and hiking in the mountains are my favorite ways to relax. 3. Reading a good book and taking a nap are my favorite ways to unwind. In these sentences, the gerunds are linked by “and”. The verb that follows the gerunds must agree with the subjects, which are the two gerunds. Since the two gerunds are plural, the verb must also be plural. In these cases, the verbs are “are.” 18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. usually take a singular verb form. 1. The jury is deliberating. 2. The flock of geese is flying south. 3. The herd of cattle is grazing in the field. 4. The team is playing well tonight. 5. The class is working on a project. Here, the collective noun is the subject of the sentence. The verb that follows the collective noun must agree with the subject, so the verbs are singular in these examples. 19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular verb. 1. “To Kill a Mockingbird” is a classic novel by Harper Lee. 2. “The Lord of the Rings” is a popular fantasy series by J.R.R. Tolkien. 3. “Gone with the Wind” remains a beloved film from the 1930s. 4. “Pride and Prejudice” is a famous novel by Jane Austen. 5. The Shawshank Redemption is a moving film 6. The Hunger Games is a great book. The title of the book, movie, or novel is the subject of the sentence. The verb that follows the title must agree with the subject, so the verbs are singular in these cases. Please remember that this rule applies even if the title of the book, movie, or novel has a plural word in it. For example, the title of the book “The Hunger Games” has the plural word “Games” in it, but the verb “is” is singular because the title is treated as a singular noun. 20. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb! Reference: Topnotcher. (n.d.). Rules of subject-verb agreement. Retrieved August 24, 2024, from https://topnotcher.ph/rules-of-subject-verb-agreement/ 2. Sentence structure What is sentence structure? Sentence structure is the order of all the parts in a sentence: subject, predicate, objects, phrases, punctuation, etc. It deals a lot with independent and dependent clauses and how they combine (explained below), the placement of words and phrases next to what they modify, and the use of proper grammar. Basic Sentence Components Component Definition Example Explanation Subject The noun or pronoun that "The cat" "The cat" is the subject performs the action or is performing the action of described in the sentence. sleeping. Verb The action or state of being in "sleeps" "sleeps" is the action the sentence. being performed by the subject. Object The noun or pronoun that "the ball" "the ball" is what is being receives the action of the verb thrown (direct object). (if applicable). Types of Sentences Type Definition Example Explanation Simple Contains a single "The cat sleeps." A straightforward Sentence independent clause sentence with one clause: with a subject and a "The cat sleeps." verb. It may include an object. Compound Contains two or more "She likes tea, Two independent clauses Sentence independent clauses and he likes joined by "and". joined by a coffee." coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. Complex Contains one "Although it was The independent clause Sentence independent clause raining, we went "we went for a walk" is and one or more for a walk." enhanced by the subordinate subordinate clause (dependent) clauses. "Although it was raining." Compound- Contains two or more "She went to the Two independent clauses Complex independent clauses store because and one subordinate Sentence and at least one she needed milk, clause combined. subordinate clause. and he stayed home." 3. Fragments What is a Sentence Fragment? - A sentence fragment is a type of incomplete sentence that lacks the necessary grammatical elements to make an independent clause. - A sentence fragment is exactly as it sounds: a “fragment” of a sentence. In other words, it is only part of a sentence, not a complete one. Since it is NOT a complete sentence, it must be reworked to be grammatically correct. - To be a grammatically correct complete sentence, a sentence needs a subject (explicit or implied) and a verb. Sentence fragments lack one or both of these elements, both of which are required to form an independent clause. Example Sentence Fragments In so many ways. - This fragment does not have a subject or a verb. Rather, it is a prepositional phrase. It is not a complete sentence. Once we leave for the movie. - This fragment has a noun, “we,” and a verb, “leave,” but it isn’t a complete sentence. It is a subordinating clause. Why are Fragments are Bad? Sentence fragments should be avoided at all costs. Only very, very experienced writers may use fragments for stylistic purposes. All other writers should avoid sentence fragments in their writing. If a writer has a fragment in his writing, it was most likely written as a fragment without that intention. Therefore, it needs to be corrected. Writers can aim to avoid sentence fragments with clear and purposeful editing. Even if a writer accidentally includes a fragment, he can check for these during revision. In order to spot a sentence fragment, a writer needs to make sure each sentence is an independent clause with a subject and a verb. Types of Sentence Fragments There are various kinds of sentence fragments, and by understanding each kind, we are better able to locate them in our writing. 1. Subordinating Clauses Subordinating clauses are dependent clauses. Even though a subordinate clause contains a subject and a verb, a subordinating clause is dependent upon an independent clause. Therefore, it cannot stand alone.  Subordinating clauses need independent clauses attached to them in order to be complete sentences. Examples of subordinating clause fragments: Before you go to the store. Correction: Before you go to the store, please stop to get gas. Although I thought I knew the answer. Correction: Although I thought I knew the answer, I hesitated to answer the question. 2. Participle Phrases A participle phrase is a modifier. Participle phrases cannot stand alone because they lack a subject and a verb. Participle phrases need to modify a noun, and they need to be a part of an independent clause. Examples of participle phrase fragments: Lost in the woods. Correction: Lost in the woods, the dog could not find its owner. Eating the entire bowl of ice cream. Correction: I was so annoyed with my brother, eating the entire bowl of ice cream. 3. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive and ends with other words. Infinitive phrases act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. However, infinitive phrases alone are not complete sentences because they lack the elements to make an independent clause. Examples of infinitive phrase fragments: To cook dinner. Correction: I was preparing to cook dinner. To respond to your mother in a rude tone. Correction: To respond to your mother in a rude tone is disrespectful. 4. Verb Phrases A verb phrase contains the verb and any direct or indirect object. A verb phrase might look like it can stand-alone; however, a verb phrase lacks a subject to make an independent clause. Examples of verb phrase fragments: Makes a good impression. Correction: He makes a good impression. Built a sandcastle for her. Correction: Grandfather built a sandcastle for her. 5. Appositives An appositive is a noun that renames or re-identifies another noun. Appositives can rename subjects but they are not subjects themselves. Appositives do not contain verbs, either, and therefore cannot stand alone as complete thoughts. Examples of appositive fragments: The one with the wagging tail. Correction: I like that dog—the one with the wagging tail. My favorite person. Correction: Mary, my favorite person, is visiting this weekend. NOTE: To sum up, sentence fragments: cannot stand alone lack a subject and a verb are grammatically incorrect need to be corrected Reference: Writing Explained. (n.d.). Sentence fragment. Writing Explained. Retrieved August 26, 2024, from https://writingexplained.org/grammar-dictionary/sentence-fragment  4. Run-ons - A run-on sentence exists when two or more independent clauses are not joined with the proper conjunction or punctuation. - A run-on sentence is poor grammar. It exists when two independent clauses (also called main clauses) are incorrectly joined. - More than one independent clause cannot exist in a sentence unless properly combined. Correct conjunctions or punctuation must be added to the sentence to properly combine clauses. - Despite their name, run-on sentences have nothing to do with length. Run-on sentences can be quite short. The only thing determining a run-on sentence is when more than one independent clause exists without the proper tools to combine them. Run-on Sentence Examples: I have to go to the store I need to buy milk. Here, there are two independent clauses with no punctuation. This is an example of a fused sentence. Clause One: I have to go to the store. Clause Two: I need to buy milk. There is no conjunction or punctuation between these clauses; this makes it a run-on sentence. We are going to the game, then we are going to dinner. Here, there are two independent clauses joined by a comma. This is an example of a comma splice. Clause One: We are going to the game. Clause Two: Then we are going to the game. Just like the previous example, there is no conjunction or punctuation between these clauses; this makes it a run-on sentence. What is a Complete Sentence? A complete sentence exists when an independent clause is created. An independent clause includes a subject and a verb or verb predicate. Complete Sentences: I walked. I waked fast. I walked to school. Today, I walked to school.  A sentence fragment and a run-on sentence are not the same. A sentence fragment does not include one or more of the necessary elements to make a full sentence, whereas a run-on sentence has too many elements in one sentence. Sentence Fragments: walked to school today (no subject) she at the store (no verb) Fixing Run-on Sentences Since run-on sentences are grammatically incorrect, they need to be corrected. In the next few paragraphs, I will go over the various ways you can correct a run-on sentence. 1. Add End Punctuation: End punctuation could separate the two clauses depending on the types of clauses that are incorrectly joined in run-on sentences. Typically, a period will work. Example: Run-on: I woke up I ate breakfast. Correction: I woke up. I ate breakfast. Now, the two clauses function as two separate sentences. 2. Use a Comma and Conjunction: Adding a comma alone does not fix a run-on sentence. In fact, it creates what is known as a comma splice. But, adding a comma and the appropriate conjunction can join the clauses appropriately. Example: Run-on: I woke up I ate breakfast. Correction: I woke up, and I ate breakfast. Not every conjunction will work for every run-on sentence. The writer needs to choose the best conjunction to communicate his meaning. 3. Use a Semi-Colon: Adding a semicolon between the two clauses can join two clauses in a run-on sentence. Example: Run-on: I woke up I ate breakfast. (Run-on) Correction: I woke up; I ate breakfast. Note that semicolons should not be used instead of periods. Semi-colons should only be used when the two clauses are of equal weight, length, and importance. In summary, a run-on sentence: is improper grammar includes two independent clauses incorrectly joined needs to be fixed can be fixed several ways Reference: Writing Explained. (n.d.). Run-on sentence. https://writingexplained.org/grammar- dictionary/run-on-sentence 5. Parallelism Parallelism in English grammar (or parallel structure) is used in order to balance the sentences we write. If they are not balanced, they will lose coherency. Take a look at this example. The problem words are in red. Incorrect: I like walking, running, and to cycle. Correct: I like walking, running, and cycling. The first sentence has two gerunds and then an infinitive. This does not look or sound right so it can be made parallel by instead using three gerunds. You should always try to balance the grammatical structures of words, phrases, clauses or sentences in your writing. These structures will be connected with coordinating conjunctions or correlative conjunctions. Parallel Words To achieve parallelism with words, you should always try to balance adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, and adverbs with adverbs. Parallelism in relation to words, particularly when it is at least three words, often relates to items in a list or series, which will be joined by coordinating conjunctions (for, and, but, yet, so, or, nor) and correlative conjunctions (both/and; neither/nor). Phrases with Coordinating Conjunctions: At the zoo you can see mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects (4 nouns) I am not sure if cycling or running is the best exercise for me (2 gerunds) You are not allowed to eat or drink at most libraries (2 infinitives) Tonight I will study, eat, and then sleep (3 infinitives) My house is colorful and bright (2 adjectives) He is tall, slim, and handsome (3 adjectives) She danced energetically and gracefully (2 adverbs) Phrases with Correlating Conjunctions: Sarah feels neither happy nor sad (2 adjectives) At school I liked both art and history (2 nouns)  Parallel Phrases Phrases also need to be balanced in your writing. These can be prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases, gerund phrases, verb phrases etc. They may be linked with coordinating or correlative conjunctions. Phrases with Coordinating Conjunctions: Tonight, I will eat my dinner and then watch TV (2 verb phrases) The boy climbed out the window, down the drainpipe, and onto the car roof (3 prepositional phrases) She decided to quit her job and move abroad (2 infinitive phrases) Phrases with Correlating Conjunctions: First thing in the morning, he likes either doing yoga or walking around the park (2 gerund phrases) He is not sure whether to buy a new car or to go away on holiday (2 infinitive phrases) She is pleased not only by his attitude but also by his intelligence (2 prepositional phrases) Parallel Clauses Parallelism also applies to noun, adjective and adverb clauses, which will again be joined with coordinating or correlative conjunctions. Clauses with Coordinating Conjunctions: I do not mind if he comes at 7 p.m. or if he comes later (2 adverbial clauses) She is the kind of person who cares about others and who will help you out when needed (2 relative) Have you decided to find a new job because you dislike your old job or because you want a new challenge? (2 adverbial clauses) Clauses with Correlating Conjunctions: She is interested in not where he bought the jacket but how he could afford it (2 noun clauses) They sacked him either because he was always late or because he was often rude to customers (2 adverbial clauses)  Tom liked neither what John said nor the way that he said it (2 noun clauses) Parallelism and Repetition It is important to note that structures will still be parallel if some words are missing from the latter parts, as long as they are exactly the same as in the first parts. The parallelism is in effect starting in a different place and getting smaller. Take a look at these parallel structure examples. The first one is the full parallel structure. In the others that follow, the second part has been reduced. Note that it is only identical words that can be taken out. Reducing the Parallel Structure He is not sure whether to buy a new car or to go away on holiday. He is not sure whether to buy a new car or go away on holiday. She is pleased not only by his attitude but also by his intelligence. She is pleased not only by his attitude but also his intelligence. I do not mind if he comes at 7 p.m. or if he comes later. I do not mind if he comes at 7 p.m. or he comes later. I do not mind if he comes at 7 p.m. or comes later. I do not mind if he comes at 7 p.m. or later. Have you decided to find a new job because you dislike your old job or because you want a new challenge? Have you decided to find a new job because you dislike your old job or you want a new challenge? Have you decided to find a new job because you dislike your old job or want a new challenge? Also, we would not include all words each time if it made the sentence too wordy. Reducing Wordiness As an artist she enjoys painting beautiful scenery, painting interesting people, and painting ancient buildings (too wordy) As an artist she enjoys painting beautiful scenery, interesting people, and ancient buildings (better) Reference: Parallelism grammar rules (parallel structure). Grammar Wiz. (n.d.). https://www.grammarwiz.com/parallelism.html 6. Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally humorous. Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large. Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head. Notice in the incorrect sentence that it sounds as if her head was too large! Of course, the writer refers to the helmet, not the person’s head. The corrected version of the sentence clarifies the writer’s meaning. Look at the following two examples: Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow. Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother. In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That is because the modifier is too far from the word it modifies, which is a kitten. Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains. Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician. The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the writer means is that the patient has stomach pains. Tip: Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly because writers often stick them in the wrong place. Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions. Repaired: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions. How do you almost find something? Either you find it, or you do not. The repaired sentence is much clearer. Exercise Rewrite the following sentences to correct the misplaced modifiers. 1. The young lady was walking the dog on the telephone. 2. Uncle Louie bought a running stroller for the baby that he called “Speed Racer.” 3. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or smoke and owns a car. 4. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil. 5. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour. 7. Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause describing something left out of the sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the modifier is said to dangle. Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly. Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly. In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is riding in the sports car. The writer must tell the reader! Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens. Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens. Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night. In the incorrect sentence walking home at night is dangling. Who is walking home at night? Jonas. Note that there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be corrected. Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team. Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should join our team. In the incorrect sentence, to win the spelling bee is dangling. Who wants to win the spelling bee? We do! Tip: The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier: 1. Look for an -ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying phrase: Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie. (Painting is the -ing modifier.) 2. Underline the first noun that follows it: Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie. 3. Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they do not, it is very likely you have a dangling modifier. After identifying the dangling modifier, rewrite the sentence. Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen. Exercise Rewrite the following the sentences onto your own sheet of paper to correct the dangling modifiers. 1. Bent over backward, the posture was very challenging. 2. Walking in the dark, the picture fell off the wall. 3. Playing a guitar in the bedroom, the cat was seen under the bed. 4. Packing for a trip, a cockroach scurried down the hallway. 5. While driving to the veterinarian’s office, the dog nervously whined. Reference: Kilgannon, A. (2021, August 20). Misplaced and dangling modifiers. Advanced English. https://opentextbc.ca/advancedenglish/chapter/misplaced- and-dangling-modifiers/ 8- 9. Paragraph/ Structure In effective writing, paragraphing plays a significant role by improving the readability and structure of your content. It involves dividing a piece of writing into parts or "paragraphs" that are structurally independent but linked together to form a coherent piece of writing. This guide takes an in-depth look at the art of writing paragraphs. Structure of a Paragraph A well-structured paragraph must have the following three components: Topic Sentence: This is the first sentence of your paragraph that introduces the main idea or the topic to be discussed. Supporting Sentences: These sentences provide evidence, examples, or explanations supporting the topic sentence's main idea. Concluding Sentence: This sentence wraps up your paragraph's discussion and links to the subsequent paragraph, if any. Example: Topic Sentence: "The cello is a versatile instrument with a rich, melodious tone." Supporting Sentences: "It can play both melody and harmony, making it a key instrument in string ensembles. The deep, warm sound of a cello is often compared to the human voice. Its wide pitch range enables it to perform virtuosic solos." Concluding Sentence: "This unique ability to blend and stand out makes the cello an indispensable instrument." Types of Paragraphs Paragraphs can be categorized into four types based on the purpose they serve: Narrative Paragraph: This type of paragraph tells a story or narrates an event or series of events. It describes actions, changes, or consequences that affect the characters. Descriptive Paragraph: This kind of paragraph describes a person, place, thing, or idea. It employs sensory details to paint a vivid picture for readers.  Expository Paragraph: An expository paragraph explains a concept, provides information, or explores an idea. This type of paragraph usually includes factual information. Persuasive Paragraph: This paragraph aims to persuade the reader to accept a particular point of view or encourage certain actions. It contains strong arguments, facts, and reasons to support the writer's stance. The Unity and Coherence of a Paragraph Two crucial features of a well-written paragraph are unity and coherence. Unity Unity signifies that a paragraph discusses a single idea the topic sentence introduces. The supporting sentences should focus on it without deviating into unrelated topics. Coherence Coherence implies that the paragraph is logically organized and that the ideas within the paragraph transition smoothly from one to another. Effective transitional phrases, parallel structures, and consistent use of verb tense contribute to a paragraph's coherence. Paragraph Length While there is no prescribed length for a paragraph, it's important to keep balance and coherence in mind. A long paragraph might appear as a wall of text that may disengage the reader. Similarly, too many short paragraphs might make your text appear disjointed. Tips for Writing Effective Paragraphs Start with a clear topic sentence to define the paragraph's focus. Provide clear, concise supporting sentences that expand on your point. Use transition words or phrases to ensure the flow and readability of your writing. Ensure all sentences within a paragraph contribute to the central idea or argument. Use the concluding sentence to connect different paragraphs and build a cohesive text. Conclusion Writing superb paragraphs requires practice and understanding. By focusing on the paragraph's structure, unity, and coherence, you can significantly elevate the quality of your writing. Remember, a paragraph's goal is to share information and deliver it readably and engagingly. Reference: Writing: Paragraph. My English Grammar. (2024, February 28). https://myenglishgrammar.com/lessons/writing-paragraph/  Introduction to Technical Writing 1. Why study Technical Writing Technical writing is communication written for and about business, science, industry, education, and other specialized fields, focusing on products and services, such as how to manufacture them, market them, manage them, deliver them, and use them. It is writing for a specific purpose and with a specific goal. Usually, its goal is to inform, instruct, persuade, or argue. Technical writing can also be considered transactional writing because there are two people or groups involved in the communication. One party has a clear goal to inform or persuade the other party. This is real-world writing in every sense. which impacts the world through textbooks, instructions, websites, and communications from many businesses and service organizations. Technical writing is NOT: literature: it is neither prose that recounts the fictional tales of characters nor poetry that expresses deeply felt, universal emotions through similes and metaphors; an expressive essay narrating an occurrence nor an expository essay analyzing a topic; journalism, written to report the news; and focused on poetic images, describing personal experiences, or reporting who won the basketball game. Instead, technical writing IS: an instructional manual for repairing machinery, a memo listing the meeting agenda; a letter from a vendor to a client, and a recommendation report proposing a new computer system. Technical writing is a broad term encompassing various documents in the abovementioned fields. The major types (or genres) of documents in technical writing can be grouped into four major categories, either in printed form or digital form, as shown in Fig. 1: 1. Reports and communications in day-to- day business;  2. Technical papers, magazine articles, books, and theses for purposes of education, teaching, and the sharing of information and knowledge; 3. Patents; and 4. Operational manuals, instructions, or procedures. The Study of technical and professional writing is important for the following reasons: 1. Writing constitutes an important part of the everyday workload in many different types of work. In a company, people write to inform about a project or activity (progress reports), to help managers in decision-making (recommendation reports), to communicate within the organization (memos), to ask questions (inquiry letters), and to contact colleagues, distributors, and mates in the same workplace (email messages). These various tasks reveal that writing is a key activity for many technical professionals. 2. They facilitate communication with co-workers, clients, and supervisors, that is, inside and outside the workplace. Engineers and scientists' writing skills must be of a high standard to effectively communicate with the people they work with. It is not enough for them to be technically good; they must be skillful in communicating what they are doing and why it is important. As a last resort, their technical and professional value will depend on their capacity to convince others of the importance of their work. 3. They are necessary for a successful career. Organizations know the advantages of a well-written document since how they construct their documents reflects their image. Poorly written documents will reveal writers' inefficiency and organizations’ lack of seriousness. Additionally, being good at written communication skills is likely to act as an added value that enhances a person’s curriculum vitae and helps one stand out from other applicants in a job selection process. 4. Writing skills contribute to saving time and money. Good technical writing saves time and, therefore, money. If one creates a document, a report, for example, for a superior, which is clear and easy to understand, no time will be wasted on pondering the meaning. 5. Technical writing is necessary for every employee’s professional skill. Daily, newspapers say employers want to hire people who can communicate effectively in writing and orally. Career counselors reiterate this. In fact, on the job, an  employee will spend at least 20 percent of his or her time writing. This number increases as an employee’s responsibilities increase. 2. Technical Writing vs. Essays Technical Writing vs Essay Writing: The Differences Technical writing focuses on describing a specific topic, while essays focus on providing a point of view. In technical writing, you are writing about a topic or field of study you already know, have studied before, and have written about in the past. In essay writing, you are writing about a topic or field of study you are unfamiliar with, have not studied before, and have never written about before. Technical writing tends to be more formal, while essay writing is more informal. Technical writing involves a lot of facts and figures, while essay writing tends to be more opinion-based. Technical writing is more structured and organized, while essay writing is more open-ended and free-flowing. Technical writing tends to be less personal than essay writing. Technical writing tends to be more factual and objective, while essay writing is more subjective and personal. Technical Writing vs Essay Writing: The Similarities While there are some similarities between technical writing and essay writing, they are very different in terms of their purpose and how they are used. Both of them require the same time and effort. Both technical writing and essay writing are time-consuming processes. This is because the skills are based on facts and figures. Hence, the only thing that matters is to write the content correctly. Both these skills are based on facts and figures; hence, the preparation for both of these skills is the same. Hence, preparing the facts and figures in advance is always advisable. However, in technical writing, it is necessary to be more organized. Both of them need the same skills and knowledge. In technical writing, you need to have good writing skills, use proper grammar and spelling, and be well-versed with technical jargon. In essay writing, you must understand the concepts and present your thoughts coherently. Both technical writing and essay writing must be presented in different mediums. Both of them need to be revised several times. Both technical writing and essay writing are required to be revised several times. The technical writers need to revise the written document for technical errors. Similarly, the essay writers must revise the paper for grammatical and spelling mistakes. Conclusion Students and businesses encounter two main types of writing: technical writing and essay writing. There are many misconceptions about technical writing and essay writing. It is essential to know the similarities and differences between these two skills. Both technical writing and essay writing focus on a particular subject; however, technical writing requires a more in-depth understanding, whereas essay writing requires a broader understanding. Both these skills require a considerable amount of time and effort. It is easy to confuse the two because they use the same format. However, technical writing and essay writing differ in their purpose. Technical writing aims to provide accurate information about a product or service, while essay writing aims to prove a theory or a point of view. 3. Communication Continuum Below is a Communication Continuum including traits and examples of five types of writing, ranging from the connotative to the denotative. 4. Five Components of Technical Writing Component Technical Writing Essays Summary Development -Uses examples, - Uses examples, - Same for anecdotes, testimony, anecdotes, testimony, both data, research data, research Grammar - It is important - It is important - Same for both Organization - Provides an introduction, -Provides an - Similar in body, and conclusion introduction, thesis some ways, - Uses subject line vs. a statement, body different in thesis transitional word paragraphs, transitional others - Users use topic words, and topic sentences only when sentences needed, dependent upon the type of length of correspondence Style - Uses short, denotative Uses longer, - Different words, short sentences, connotative words, and short paragraphs longer sentences, and longer paragraphs Document - It uses highlighting Not usually a factor - Different Design techniques such as graphics, headings, subheadings, various fonts, white space, bullets, etc. Reference: Boricha, M. (2023, May 26). Technical Writing vs. Essay Writing: Differences & Similarities. Tech Arrival. Casela, NC & Cuevas, GJM (2010). Technical writing towards meeting academic challenges. Rivera JA (2019). Technical writing: A resource guide to writing across disciplines.  FIVE TRAITS OF TECHNICAL WRITING Overview As future teachers, technical writing will always be a part of your profession. From the application letter and resume during your application to emails, accomplishment reports, and many more throughout your career, technical writing is an essential skill you need to master. But before we ask you to write, you still need to be informed about the specific criteria of effective technical writing. According to Gerson (2013), the five traits of technical writing are: clarity, conciseness, accessibility, audience recognition, and accuracy. 1. Clarity Among the five traits of technical writing, clarity is the most important. If the principal’s memo, for example, is not clearly understood by the teachers, they will either call the principal for further clarification or ignore the memo. In either case, the principal’s time is wasted, the teachers’ time is wasted, the message of the memo is lost. Clarity, nevertheless, is not just a time concern. Think of it from this perspective: If you fail to clearly understand a short story, a poem, a novel, or a play, that is unfortunate; however, equipment is not damaged, no one is physically hurt, and no one is prosecuted. Due to the lack of clarity in technical documents, several impediments can occur. Certainly, clarity has the utmost importance in technical writing, but the question now is: How can we achieve clarity in our technical documents? Gerson (2013) suggested two ways to attain it. The first one is through the Reporter’s Questions: who, what, when, where, why, how. This faulty memo, written by a principal to a newly hired faculty, emphasizes the importance of clarity. Date: July 17, 2020 To: Andrea Coleen V. Jose From: Jazzleen Ronald V. Limueco Subject: Meeting Please plan to prepare a presentation on enrolment. Make sure the information is very detailed. Thanks. What do you not know about this memo? What additional information should the principal have included for clarity? Nothing is clear in the memo, and the explanations are very apparent. The principal has failed to answer the Reporter’s Questions: who, what, when, where, why, and how. If you are the one who has received the memo, most probably, you would ask the following questions: When is the meeting? Where is the meeting? Who is the meeting for? How much information is “very detailed”? How will the presentation be made? Why is this meeting being held? What does the principal want to be conveyed about enrollment?  You can revise the previous memo by utilizing the Reporter’s Questions Checklist to achieve greater clarity. Date: July 17, 2020 To: Andrea Coleen V. Jose From: Jazzleen Ronald V. Limueco Subject: Marketing Staff Meeting Please make a presentation on strategies to increase our enrollment rates for our marketing staff. This meeting is planned for August 10, 2020, in the Conference Room, from 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Our enrollment rates are down 27% due to the pandemic crisis. Hence, we need to help our staff accomplish the following: 1. Make new contacts. 2. Recruit enrolees more effectively. 3. Increase our enrolment rates by at least 20%. Utilize our newly bought multimedia presentation system to make your presentation. With your help, I know our school can get back on track. Thanks. According to Gerson (2013), the second way to attain clarity is through specificity. The main target of effective technical writing is to convey the same thing to multiple readers. You could fill a page with words when you answer the reporter’s questions. But remember, all words are not equal. Words like several, some, few, many, often, frequently, recently, or substantial will take up space on the page and convey an impression. These words are connotative, meaning, they will not mean the same thing to everyone. If a memo sent to seven marketing staff states that the school has lost a substantial number of enrollees due to pandemic, will all staff acquire the same knowledge? One staff might assume that a substantial loss equals 50 enrollees; another staff might assume that a substantial loss equals 100 enrollees. In each case, the staff is guessing, and that is not the goal of successful technical writing. 2. Conciseness Successful technical writing should aid the reader in understanding the text, not present hindrances to understanding. Read the paragraph below, taken from an actual business correspondence:  Do you understand this letter? Do you recall what you read? Did you even finish reading it? This paragraph fails to communicate its message because it is too wordy. In this example, conciseness actually would aid clarity. You probably think it is the reader’s responsibility to figure it out, but no, it is the writer's responsibility. Remember, you are writing a technical document, a job requirement; you are not writing literature. In your creative writing class during your senior high school days, you were taught to challenge your readers, who are responsible for understanding your creative writing. However, technical writing, as clarified in the previous unit, is not literature. Technical documents must be concise. They are tools for the readers to accomplish whatever job they are doing. In contrast to creative writing, excellent technical writing uses short words and short sentences. Conciseness Achieved through Short Words As much as possible, avoid using multisyllabic words. Use one and two- syllable words in your writing. But of course, you cannot change several multisyllabic words like engineer, telecommunications, or Internet. Other words, however, can be avoided. Take a look at the examples below. Conciseness Achieved through Short Sentences Here is a flawed example of technical writing: “In order to successfully accomplish their job functions, the marketing staff has been needing more workspace for some time now.” An improved sentence would read, “The marketing staff needs more workspace to do its jobs.” The first sentence contains 20 words and 31 syllables; the second sentence contains 10 words and 13 syllables. You can shorten a sentence by avoiding: redundancy, prepositional phrases, and passive voice. Avoiding Redundancy Why say, “The tuition will cost the sum of 30000 pesos”? It is more concise to say, “The tuition will cost 30000 pesos.” In this example, “the sum of” is redundant. The examples below replace redundancy with concise revisions: Avoiding Prepositional Phrases Prepositional phrases form long-winded sentences. Take a look at the following examples: Avoiding Passive Voice Sentences with passive voice are weak for at least two reasons. First, they replace strong verbs with weak verbs. Second, they are wordy. Ex: “The module was written by Sir Luijim.” versus “Sir Luijim wrote the module.” The first sentence has a weak verb and has seven words. In contrast, the second sentence has the strong verb wrote, and has five words. The emphasis is placed on Sir Luijim rather than on the module. Take a look at the other examples below: 3. Accessibility Aside from clarity and conciseness, the third criterion of successful technical writing is accessibility. Accessibility in terms of the page layout or the way the text looks on the page. Take a look at the following paragraph:  This paragraph consists of ten sentences and 84 words. The total word count per sentence is just 8.4. Because the sentences are not too lengthy, the writing is concise. Subsequently, the paragraph is clear because of the specificity of detail. Yet, despite the clarity and conciseness, this technical writing fails. Why? Basically, this paragraph is incomprehensible. The page layout makes the reader practically unable to understand the text message. You can revise this paragraph by making the content accessible through the following highlighting techniques: varied font types, varied font sizes, numbered lists, bullets, boldface text, italics, underlining, white space, headings and subheadings, and graphics (table and figures). These highlighting techniques can make your text airy, open, and inviting. A revised copy of the information given in the sample paragraph is shown below. 4. Audience Recognition Effective technical writers understand that they can only attain clarity by recognizing their audiences. Basically, you will write to either High Tech Peers, Low Tech Peers, or Lay Readers. Writing effectively to these three types of audience levels requires different techniques. High Tech Peers know just as much about a subject as you do. They have the same education, same job title, same level of expertise, and the same years of experience. For example, a university professor writing to another university professor would be writing High Tech to High Tech. When you are writing to a high- tech peer, you can use acronyms and abbreviations, usually without any definition. Teachers of professional education subjects are familiar with PBA. But teachers in other fields would assume that PBA meant Philippine Basketball Association, not Partnership Building Activity. Low Tech Peers who work inside your company know something about the subject. They may not have the same education, job title, level of expertise, or years of experience. For example, a university professor writing to a newly hired instructor would be writing High Tech to Low Tech. Professors in the College of Education do not need their high-tech peers to define PBL. If these professors write to one of their fellow faculty in other Colleges, however, this high-tech term must be explained. PBL could be parenthetically defined as Project-Based Learning, something professors in the College of Education understand. Lay Readers are your customers. They are completely out of the loop. For example, a university professor communicating with a student. When a professor communicates with a student, he must refrain from using abbreviations and acronyms. He must also define important terminologies. Sometimes, lay readers also need follow-up explanations to avoid confusion completely. Aside from identifying your audience level, do not forget to use pronouns in your technical writing. After all, schools do not write to schools. People write to people. Your readers want to be spoken to, not spoken at. Pronouns are effective in technical writing. I, me, my, you, your, us, we, and our create a personalized tone. 5. Accuracy Successful technical writing must be accurate, whether grammatically, electronically, etc. Your errors in technical writing can make you and your school look bad. More importantly, your mistakes can lead not just to embarrassment and misunderstandings but also to damages, injuries, and lawsuits; hence you must deeply understand the importance of proofreading. You can apply the following proofreading techniques to ascertain the accuracy of your technical documents. Use your computer’s spell check—remember, however, that a spell check will not catch from if you mean form, too if you mean to, or accept if you mean except. Let it sit—for days or weeks. When your document is icy, you are more objective about your own writing. Use peer evaluations—others will see the errors you miss. Read it aloud—sometimes, you can hear errors. Read it backward—then you read words out of context. You cannot anticipate the next word.  5-Trait Rubric This five-trait rubric can help in assessing your work. References Alred, G. J., Brusaw, C. T., & Oliu, W. E. (2015). Handbook of technical writing. Bedford/St. Martin’s. Gerson, S. M. (2013). Writing that works: a teacher’s guide to technical writing. Kansas Competency-Based Curriculum Center, Washburn University. Laan, K. V., & Hackos, J. A. T. (2013). The insider’s guide to technical writing. O’Reilly. Markel, M., & Selber, S. A. (2018). Technical communication. Bedford/St. Martin’s. Tebeaux, E., & Dragga, S. (2018). The essentials of technical communication. Oxford University Press.