Global Population and Migration Written Report 2024 - Philippines

THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD (TCW 0005-4) CHAPTER 9: GLOBAL POPULATION AND MIGRATION WRITTEN REPORT Submitted by: GROUP 6 ABSALON, Angela F. BAUTISTA, Rainiel Austine Josh B. NUÑEZ, Jerb...

THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD (TCW 0005-4) CHAPTER 9: GLOBAL POPULATION AND MIGRATION WRITTEN REPORT Submitted by: GROUP 6 ABSALON, Angela F. BAUTISTA, Rainiel Austine Josh B. NUÑEZ, Jerbrey Ashanna M. Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management BSTM 2-1 Professor: Atty. Felix R. De Ocampo Jr. December 2024 1  CHAPTER 9: GLOBAL POPULATION AND MIGRATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: 1.​ Understand the basic concepts, measures in demography. 2.​ Critically evaluate validity of different population theories. 3.​ Draw a conclusion regarding the underlying relationship between population growth and development. 4.​ Familiarize the basic concepts and theories of migration. 5.​ Distinguish various types of migrants, their patterns of migration, and their special needs. INTRODUCTION The need to study population lies on the fact that a change in population size constitutes some of the important features of social transition and change. Like the introduction of new forms of technology, increase or decrease in population can also be a catalyst for social change. Rapid population growth poses great hazards to the environment according to several studies. In man’s effort to meet his basic demands, it may result to the depletion of the natural resources. Forests are continuously deforested, and dynamite and other illegal fishing are unabated, all in an effort to meet the needs of the increasing population. Because of the excessive use of fertilizers, the arable land is gradually losing its natural fertility. In other words, there is a complete disruption of the earth’s ecosystem. Rapid migration to urban cities adds burden to the situation. Air, water, and sound pollution are just some of the contaminants in large cities, not to mention the thickening slum areas and the slugging flow of traffic. In addition, swelling demands for houses, costs of land, lumber, cement, and fuel required have risen beyond the financial means of the many. To make matters worse, proper garbage disposal serves as one of the major problems in the cities, with the added propensity of throwing waste materials to the rivers and seas, thus destroying marine resources. Finally, for every person added to the world’s population, this would require energy to prepare food, to provide clothing and shelter and to fuel economic life. 2 BASIC CONCEPTS: DEMOGRAPHY AS THE STUDY OF POPULATION A.​ Population: refers to the number of persons occupying a certain geographic area, drawing subsistence from their habitat, and interacting with one another. B.​ Demography: the scientific study of population.The word demography comes from the Greek words demos, which means "people", and graphia, which means "writing about or recording something". C.​ Demographer: a person who specializes in the study of the population; he gathers data about the size, distribution, composition, and change in population in order to describe them. He also analyzes the structure of the population in terms of factors such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, and some other demographic variables. 3 COMPONENTS OF THE POPULATION 1.​ Size - refers to the number of people while growth refers to the changes in number of people over time. 2.​ Composition - describes the characteristics of people comprising the population, their age, sex distribution, educational attainment, economic activities, ethnicity, religion, etc. 3.​ Distribution - refers to how the population is distributed in a given geographic area. This is best measured in terms of population density. POPULATION PYRAMID ​ A graphical representation of the entire population according to age and gender. Hence, based on the population pyramid, one can determine whether the population is young or elderly, dependent or working, male or female-dominated. Figure 9.1: Population Pyramid of Developed and Developing Nations (1995 and 2005 compared) Population pyramid of the Philippines based on the 1995 (actual) and 2025 (projected) data. 3 EARLY THEORIES ON POPULATION Prior to the Theory on Demographic Transition (TDT), there were already established theories on population growth. One of the most established theories was the Malthusian Theory on Population, propounded by no less than a demographer-economist Thomas Robert Matlhus (1776-1834). In his “Essay on the Principle of Population” which was first published in 1798, he made a critical mathematical analysis on population and food supply. MALTHUSIAN THEORY ON POPULATION The Malthusian Theory of Population is the theory of exponential population and arithmetic food supply growth. The theory was proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus. He believed that a balance between population growth and food supply can be established through preventive and positive checks. Malthus argued that the recent population is growing more rapidly than the available food supply.While the population is growing in geometric progression (2, 4, 8, 16, 32...), the food supply on the other hand is increasing in arithmetic progression (2, 4, 6, 8, 10...). This gap continues over time and unless the people do something to curb the increasing rate of population, the population will experience the so-called "positive check" - the natural way of curbing the population growth such as famine, poverty, and misery. In order to avoid resorting to a "positive check" of curbing population growth, Malthus espoused the idea of "preventive checks", which means preventing the population from growing to its geometric progression over time. These preventive checks include postponement of marriage and contraceptive use. However, the effect of adopting contraceptive use may only be temporary since "population could soon grow to its new equilibrium level" (Lee, 2003:169). In the end, Malthus was only advocating the idea of postponing marriage as a possible way to reduce fertility rate of the woman, and exposure to reproduction is at least lessened to the minimum. He further opined that couples must take full responsibility in deciding the number of children they want to have, i.e. limit only the number of children according to their capability to provide them a better quality of life. If there is one criticism against Malthus theory, it would be his failure to predict the power of technology. While he mathematically calculated the disequilibrium between population growth and food supply, he failed to factor in the power of technology in increasing the supply of food. This means by simply introducing new technology in farming (e.g. fertilizer use, breeding, irrigation system, etc.), food supply may inevitably be at par with population increase. 4 However, developmentalists may buy with the idea of Malthus that this technology-based solution may only be temporary because technology has its optimum limits and its abusive use may further deteriorate food production, and its productivity may not sustain over time. In a pragmatic sense, Malthus' strong advocacy on the postponement of marriage to lessen exposure to reproduction does not find reality in the contemporary world. Studies reveal that pre-marital sex is increasing in almost all countries in the world today. Therefore, coital exposure is not only through marriage, because coital frequencies may happen even before and beyond the bounds of marriage. MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY 1.​ POPULATION AND FOOD SUPPLY The Malthusian theory explained that the population grows in a geometrical fashion. The population would double in 25 years at this rate. However, the food supply grows in an arithmetic progression. Food supply increases at a slower rate than the population. That is, the food supply will be limited in a few years. The shortage of food supply indicates an increasing population. 2.​ CHECKS ON POPULATION When the increasing population rate is greater than the food supply, disequilibrium exists. As a result, people will not get enough food even for survival. People will die due to a lack of food supply. Adversities such as epidemics, wars, starvation, famines and other natural calamities will crop up which are named as positive checks by Malthus. On the contrary, there are man-made checks known as preventive checks. 3.​ POSITIVE CHECKS Nature has its own ways of keeping a check on the increasing population. It brings the population level to the level of the available food supply. The positive checks include famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics, wars, etc. Nature plays up when the population growth goes out of hand. 4.​ PREVENTIVE CHECKS Preventive measures such as late marriage, self-control, and simple living, help to balance the population growth and food supply. These measures not only check the population growth, but can also prevent the catastrophic effects of the positive checks. 5 CRITICISMS OF THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY OF POPULATION 1.​ POPULATION GROWTH Malthus’s dire predictions haven’t played out in the real world. For example, in Western Europe, populations have grown, and food production has risen as well due to technological advancements. 2.​ FOOD PRODUCTION Food production has seen a dramatic increase over the past century, thanks to multiple technological advancements. In many cases, the food production rate has increased more rapidly than the population growth rate. 3.​ GLOBAL TRADE Malthus’s theory on the constraints of food production was based on the limited availability of land at that time. But thanks to globalization, we can now trade goods and services for food. This results in a rise in the amount of food that a country can consume. 4.​ CALCULATIONS Malthus didn’t provide calculations for the arithmetic growth of food and the geometric growth of populations. Since he came out with his theory, experts have pointed out that the current growth rates are not consistent with the predictions put forth by Malthus. MARXIST PRINCIPLE OF KARL MARX Another contradiction to Malthus' view comes from another population theorist in the person of Karl Marx. For Marx, there is nothing wrong about population growth because for him, rising world population is not the root cause of the recent poverty and misery. According to him, capitalism is the root cause of all forms of social ills. Rising world population should rather be considered as potential aspect for national development. Large population simply means rich source of manpower, and that if only the government would provide better and equal job opportunities, poverty and misery are definitely out of the issue. The sad thing, according to him, is the fact that capitalistic society invests more on buildings and machines instead of providing more equitable distribution of food, housing, and other necessities of life. This Marxist principle on population is further boosted by the slogan that says, "Development is the best contraception". This means that if one need to limit childbearing the best alternative is to improve the socio-economic conditions of the family through equal access 6 to education and employment. Only then can individuals may stop or reduce family size because maintaining social status takes precedence over fertility preferences. This can further be sustained by technological advancement to sustain quality of life. However, the development and affluence experienced by these countries are not true to the other parts of the world, despite the technological advancement to sustain quality of life for the population. There remains to have unprecedented population explosion in poorer nations in the world. The inverse relationship between population and development seems only true to highly developed nations because in most cases, the poorer nations serve as the sources of raw materials by the rich nations. Thus, the interplay of political power, as contended by Karl Marx, is the major cause of the problem. MARXIST CRITIQUES ON THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY 1.​ POPULATION AS A PRODUCT OF CAPITALISM​ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels rejected Malthus's notion that population growth inherently causes poverty. Instead, they argued that poverty and scarcity are outcomes of unequal wealth distribution in capitalist societies, not population pressure on resources. For Marxists, capitalism creates artificial scarcity by concentrating wealth and resources in the hands of a few, leading to poverty for the majority, regardless of population size. 2.​ FOCUS ON PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY Marxism emphasizes the role of productive forces, such as technology and labor, in overcoming scarcity. Unlike Malthus, who assumed static food production capabilities, Marxists believe technological advancements can increase production to meet population needs. They view human labor as a resource, not a liability, highlighting that more people can lead to greater productivity and innovation under equitable systems. 3.​ CLASS STRUGGLE AND POVERTY Marxists argue that Malthus’s theory distracts from the real issue: the exploitation of workers by the capitalist class. Poverty and resource shortages are seen as products of systemic inequality and exploitation rather than overpopulation. Engels, in particular, criticized Malthus for ignoring the impact of economic structures and class relations on resource distribution. 7  4.​ OVERPOPULATION AS A POLITICAL CONCEPT Marxists view the concept of "overpopulation" as a tool used by the ruling class to justify oppression and maintain control. For example, it can be used to rationalize poor wages, limited social welfare, or colonial exploitation by blaming population growth rather than systemic inequality. MALTHUS VS MARX | KEY DIFFERENCES ASPECT MALTHUSIAN VIEW MARXIST VIEW CAUSE OF POVERTY Overpopulation relative to Unequal wealth distribution resources. under capitalism. VIEW OF POPULATION Inherently problematic Neutral or positive (depends on system) SOLUTION TO POVERTY Population control Social revolution and equitable systems ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY Limited ability to overcome Central to solving scarcity resource limits and poverty THE THEORY OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION The theory of the demographic transition can be viewed as one way to explain how the world today experienced the rapid population growth. It is a global demographic phenomenon whereby the population growth has experienced a pattern of transition from the high birth rate and high death rate, to a modern pattern of low birth rate and low death rate. Using a historical approach, the demographers found out that the world population is continuously undergoing a series of transition in death rates and birth with the transitions identified as follows: Stage 1: High birth and death rates with little population growth Stage 2: Declining death rate, primarily the result of reduction in infant death, along with medium fertility - resulting to significant population growth Stage 3: Low birth and death rates with little population growth In stage 1, the world is characterized by high birth rate. However, because of the corresponding high death rates, there is only little population growth - thus a stable population. In this stage, health remained relatively poor, which is why the way to maintain a relatively stable population is to desire a large number of children. In stage 2, the mortality rate drastically 8 declined because of the health improvement, which resulted in a decline in infant death. However, there remains a high birth rate, thus resulting in rapid population growth. In stage 3, the low birth rate is almost comparable to that of the low death rate. This is because of the effort to curtail fertility, thus resulting in low population growth. Stages of the Demographic Transition Based on Fertility and Mortality Rates According to the demographers, all societies have to undergo these three stages of demographic transition, in which the movement to the next stage greatly depends on the level of development. Almost all societies today have surpassed the first stage and now entering the second stage. No wonder, the world today is experiencing a rapid population growth. While the highly developed countries are able to move to the next stage, the less developed countries are still lagging behind the previous stage. That is why the campaign for the use of family planning method is prevailing in the less developed countries so as to prevent a rapid population growth. THE FIRST STAGE | HIGH BIRTH RATE AND HIGH DEATH RATE The first stage in the demographic transition was theorized to have been experienced by all countries in the world. It started since the beginning of human civilization until after the Intellectual Revolution, when advances in medicine and technology came to the fore in a civilized society. Although most of reasons are related to poor access to health and medicine, 9 hence high mortality levels (as will be discussed later), there are some equally cultural reasons why high birth rate is apparent in the period. One primary reason behind the culture of high fertility rate is the virtual feeling that individuals seem to be pressured to have children (Week, 1986:111-112). It is rather embedded in the society's culture that marriage is institutionalized, as it is the legitimate means of begetting children. This pro-natalist view about marriage seems to pressure individuals, who are still in the state of being single, to marry later in their lives, and once married, they are likewise pressured to have children. Consequently, couples are honored if they beget more children, while those without having fewer children are frowned upon. Still, another reason for preferring more children is for security and labor. In pre-modern society, children are regarded as old-age security - the ones to take care of them during their old age. In the case of agricultural society, children are often regarded as additional labor for the ever- demanding manual agricultural work. For patriarchal societies, the desire for sons is one of the compelling reasons why couples opt to have another child. Thus, they push through childbearing until they have at least one son. This culture of male preference is essentially historical since most of the ancient societies were led or dominated by men. During the period of transition from high to low fertility, couples may still opt to choose for large family size because of the feeling of ambivalence. There is a feeling of ambivalence when couples do not necessarily want any more children and yet they do so because they are socially rewarded. This means that childbearing, although unwanted at the moment, may still be desired, if it is expected to achieve other equally important goals in life. For example, a woman may no longer want for another child, but she may rather do so if it is the only way to get a lion's share of their families' estate. According to Weeks, there are several factors that pave the way for the ambivalence factor in fertility. These include the identification of a woman's role with reproduction, lack of participation of women in work outside of the immediate family, low levels of education, lack of communication between husband and wife, lack of potential for social mobility, and an extended family system in which couples need not be economically independent in order to afford children. 10 THE SECOND STAGE | HIGH BIRTH RATE AND LOW DEATH RATE The second demographic transitional shift, as estimated by most demographers, took sometime in the 1800s. This period is characterized by the reduction in contagious and infectious diseases that probably caused the high mortality rate in the previous stage. Some preventive measures came along the way, such as governmental health measures of quarantine, and compulsory mass vaccination especially among children. With the improvement in medical technology comes with it an improvement in nutrition and personal hygiene. Mortality due to famine was also lessened with the improvement in food storage and transportation. Furthermore, secular increases in income likewise contributed to the significant drop of mortality rate in this stage, with more and more people obviously capable of accessing the latest medical innovations (Lee, 2003: 170-171). This significant reduction in mortality rate has been experienced in almost all parts of the globe, ranging from more developed to least developed countries, as can be observed in their population's life expectancy. In Lee's study (2003:173), he projected that in more developed countries, life expectancy significantly improved, from 66.1 years in 1950 to a whopping 74.8 years by the year 2050. This would happen to around 1.2 billion people in all countries in Europe, North America, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, being classified by the United Nations as More Developed Countries. The greatest improvement however, would happen in Less Developed Countries, with life expectancy starting from 41.8 years in 1950 to 65.4 years in 2050, an indication that within the time period, population life expectancy significantly improves by half a year per year. This significant improvement also happens to the most number of population in the less developed countries (composed of India, China, and the bulk of the world's population), affecting around 4.2 billion people. Although the Least Developed Countries have the lowest life expectancy among the countries mentioned, they have however, a better improvement than the More Developed Countries, with their life expectancy calculated to have 35.7 years in 1950 to 48.7 years in 2050. The Least Developed Countries include the Sub-Saharan Africa, Bangladesh, Cambodia, and a few other countries, with around 700 million population. Apparently however, the second stage has been identified as the primordial factor of population growth - the primary reason of the world population explosion. Despite the significant drop in mortality rate, the fertility rate does not follow the same pattern, at least in this particular stage. This confirms the earlier discussion that mortality and not fertility is the root cause of the world population growth. 11 THE THIRD STAGE | LOW BIRTH RATE AND LOW DEATH RATE The third stage in the demographic transition is one characterized by a fertility rate almost the same as that of the mortality, thereby resulting to what demographers say, "zero population growth". It is the stage where "replacement level" becomes the norm, thereby replacing the couples with two children, with some countries even falling below the said replacement level. The phenomenon of low birth rate and low mortality rate cannot be said, at least for the time being, as having been the experienced by all countries in the world. This third stage has its selective manifestation, as it only happens in the More Developed Countries, having already achieved their replacement level or below. Some studies however, suggested that less and least developed countries had already achieved their replacement level, but hard and accurate need to be established for this purpose. For less developed countries, the total fertility rate remains at around 3.0, which is still a little higher than the replacement level, but significantly lower than its previous 6.0 children way back 1960s. For the least developed countries, the total fertility rate is likewise around 3.0 children by the year 2050s as projected, which is also a significant improvement from around 7.0 children in the 1950s. Hence, according to the experts, in due time, both the less and least developed countries would soon achieve the finishing line of the demographic transition. There are several societal factors that paved the way for countries to achieve the third stage. One factor is the couple's preference for child survival than child birth per se. This means that couples would rather opt to have fewer births with an increased survival rate than the previous culture of more births but with slimmer survival rate. Significant improvement in the economic status of the couples also shifted their mindset of investing more in the health and welfare of their smaller number of children (Nerlove, 1974, as quoted by Lee, 2003). These factors led to the modern idea that children become more expensive as couples need to invest first on their education, while their (children) economic contributions are being diminished by their school attendance. Finally, the old notion that children are regarded as old-age insurance or old-age security of parents has been gradually diminished, following governmental programs providing retirement benefits for the elderly population. 12 CRITICISMS AGAINST THE THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION There are however, several criticisms against the theory of the demographic transition. First, the demographic transition is not a law of "population growth", but rather a general description on how population grows in industrial societies. Being merely descriptive, it is not therefore predictive of the future population trend, and if demographers attempt to predict, such predictions would rather be uncertain for lack of accurate data. Therefore, the demographic transition is more confined to current state of the world population, the future being a phenomenon subject to be seen. Another drawback about this theory is the failure to foresee the aftermath of the transition. The question of "what happens after third stage" remains hanging and the demographic transition appears to be silent about this. Would that mean that in the future, all countries would achieve the stationary population? Or would that mean that another demographic transition will occur? Nevertheless, with the passage of time, another theorist advances that after completing the demographic transition, another pattern of population transition is now happening, as discussed in the sections that follow. IS THERE A SECOND DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION? Recent development in the field of demography suggests that the world shifted to another demographic transition. This demographic transition, in the words of Ron Lesthaeghe (2010:211-212), is one characterized by birth rate falling below the replacement level, with mortality rates, although kept in the minimum, even a little higher than its birth rate. This second demographic transition is further characterized with a broader aging population but with a narrowing younger population. Because of this apparently "dying population", countries experiencing this second demographic transition encourage the so- called "replacement migration" with the hope that immigrants would become a substantial addition to the relatively decreasing population. In this demographic transition, the further decline of fertility level is brought by the fact that couples tend to postpone further their fertility intention, below replacement level, by increasing their mean age at first parenthood. This is made possible through efficient contraception during marriage. This is not to say however that couples in this country had perfected their vows of chastity before marriage. On the contrary, couples engaged themselves in extramarital fertility due to parenthood within cohabitation, either before or after the formal marriage. Of course, new marriage patterns in this part of the world significantly paved the way for this demographic transition. Experts believed that new marriage patterns as manifestation of 13 the second demographic transition started as early as the 1950s in most of the More Developed Countries. These countries appeared to have decreasing proportion of married population, rising age at first marriage, rising incidence of pre- and post-marital cohabitation, rising proportion and earlier incidence of divorce, as well as declining remarriage following both divorce and widowhood. In other words, the cumulative effect of these factors, created an environment of refusal for individuals, especially for women, to participate in the child-bearing responsibility. Just as the demographic transition theory is bombarded with several criticisms, so is the second demographic transition. For the most part, critics say that this demographic transition is apparently a pattern only in the Western countries or among More Developed Countries so to speak. It does not speak with certainty that it will eventually happen in the Less and the Least Developed Countries. Or even if it will soon to happen, these countries will find its way to counter its negative effects. For another part, most of the advocates of the traditional demographic transition believe that there is nothing new about this theory since it is just merely a continuation of the first one. This is however contradicted with the facts that there are already non-Western countries that experience this second demographic transition. Japan and Hong Kong are just two examples of countries having experienced the aging population, and most of its policies become more liberal for incoming migrants to sustain its population. Advocates further believe, in rebutting its second criticism, that the traditional demographic transition has its own features and social factors unique and distinct from the second demographic transition. POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT One of the interesting debates in the modern world is the interconnection between population and development. Following the Malthusian principle, some advocates believe that the increasing number of population poses threat to national development by saying that "population growth can threaten developmental (www.un.org/popin/fao/lisbon/lisbon.html).efforts" On the other hand, following the Marxist principle, another group of advocates opine that population is not really the problem, but the inequitable or unequal distribution of resources and/or development to selected few powerful individuals, if not to select few of powerful nations. It further asserts that the desired population size will be kept to the minimum once development becomes the lifestyle of the population (ibid.). But the question is, is it really population or development, or can it be population development? 14 THE FIRST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT The first school of thought is that population needs to be limited to a certain extent in order not to hamper the nation's economic development. As they say, no matter how progressive a country is, its population needs to be limited because the globe is no longer getting any bigger to accommodate its increasing population. There is no real national development if population remains unchecked to a certain limit to equate with available natural resources. This argument somehow holds water. It is an undeniable fact that most of the resources in the world today are getting scarce. The "carrying capacity" of the world today is approaching closer to its limits and unless timely checked, the habitable world will be gone so soon. For example, several studies conducted in Africa revealed that "five countries would soon find their population pressure beyond the water barrier". This means that the maximum population is already beyond the "carrying capacity" of the present state of water technology, at least in so far as the five African countries are concerned. THE SECOND SCHOOL OF THOUGHT The second school of thought asserts otherwise. It attacks the first school of thought by saying that the issue only pertains to the increasing number of population that belong to the poverty line because it would mean more mouths to feed. However, if development is properly introduced, the negative consequence of the growing population means more hands to produce. If given the opportunity to develop their full potential, this population would surely become an asset to national development. This investment opportunity can be in terms of education and employment. The ultimate result is that population is the key to development. This has been the experience of countries in developed regions in the world. States appropriately introduced development policies that subsequently bolstered its economy. The end result is the booming economy. In the long run, development policies created significant impact to the population structure. Since individuals are given every opportunity for self- development, they eventually limit childbearing, thus curtailing population growth. Therefore, development is the best contraception. But this never-ending debate cannot be properly addressed by embracing one advocacy and abandoning the other. Rather, in the opinions of most of the developmentalists, population and development concerns should hold hands together to 15 promote sustainable development. Limiting the population with less emphasis on development goals is aimless and lacks the necessary direction. On the other hand, focusing more on development without the necessary population control mechanism is shallow and baseless. The two must be properly addressed for a sustainable development. This means therefore that while population programs must be heightened in limiting the number of children to women of reproductive ages, the government must likewise introduce proper developmental programs such as improving the quality of life of its people, upgrade the standards and quality of education for young people, and create better job opportunities for the unemployed. The two must not be diametrically opposed with each other. THE DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES The change in the population size is determined by the three demographic processes, namely: fertility, mortality, and migration. Fertility refers to the amount of reproduction among women of reproductive ages. This is usually expressed in terms of number of children born by women in ages 15-49. Fertility is composed of two parts: one is the biological component while the other is social. The biological component of fertility is the capacity of the woman to reproduce. It is sometimes known as fecundity, which is the physical ability to reproduce. Thus, a woman is said to be fecund if she is capable of producing children, or sterile, if she cannot. The social component of fertility, on the other hand, refers to the social environment that determines the actual and number of children to be born, given the capacity to reproduce. Mortality refers to the number of death in a given population. According to the demographers, declining mortality, not the rising fertility, is the root cause of current world population growth. This is because over time, man is able to bring mortality under control that most of the people are able to take and enjoy a long life. There are two biological aspects of mortality. These are lifespan and longevity. The former refers to the oldest age to which human beings can survive. In other words, it pertains to how long a person can possibly live. The latter refers to the ability to remain alive from one year to the next. It is also sometimes known as the ability to resist death. While lifespan is almost entirely a biological phenomenon, longevity on the other hand has both biological and social components. 16  Finally, migration refers to the relatively permanent movement of people with the purpose of changing their residence. The two types of migration are internal and international migration. The first type involves permanent change of residence within national boundaries, and may sometimes refer only as a movement. The second type involves a permanent movement across national boundaries. Under this, a person is called an emigrant in terms of the area of origin, and an immigrant in terms of the area of destination. Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as voluntary if the migrant decides to move by his/her choice. Most of these migrants are labor-related such as the case of temporary labour migrants, who migrate for a limited period as guest- workers or overseas contract workers from a few months to several years in order to take up employment and send home money (remittances); highly-skilled and business migrants, who are hired as managers, executives, professionals, technicians and similar, who move within the internal labour markets of transnational corporations and international organizations, or who seek employment through international labour markets for scarce skills; irregular migrants, who enter a country, usually in search of employment without the necessary documents and permits; and return migrants, who return to their countries of origin after a period in another country. There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes the refugees, a person residing outside of his or her country of nationality, who is unable or unwilling to return because of a "well- founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. It also includes asylum-seekers, or those people who move across borders in search of protection, but who may not fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952 Convention. Further, this also includes the forced migrants, or those forced to move by environmental catastrophes or development projects such as new factories, roads or dams. Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and international migration. Internal migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or municipality) to another within one country. International migration on the other hand, means crossing the frontiers which separate one of the world's approximately 200 states from another (Castles, 2000:169). 17 THEORIES ON MIGRATION 1.​ NEO-CLASSICAL THEORY ​ According to neo-classical theory, migration is usually associated with an individual’s efforts to maximize income by moving from low-income to high-wage economies. This is the most common reason for migration, especially the migration of one coming from developing to developed countries and especially if there is a high proportion of underemployment in the country of origin. The current pattern of migration is an empirical data of this theory. 2.​ LABOR MIGRATION THEORY ​ This theory is a new economic approach in explaining migration. It argues that migration cannot simply be explained by income differences between two countries, but also by factors such as chances of secure employment, availability of capital for entrepreneurial activity, and the need to manage risk over long periods. Migration decisions are made not just by individuals but most often represent family strategies to maximize income and survival chances (Hugo, 1994 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272). 3.​ MIGRATION SYSTEMS THEORY ​ This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two countries where migration system is constituted by two or more countries which exchange migrants with each other. In this system, it is necessary to examine both ends of the flow and study all the linkages (economic, cultural, political, military, etc.) between the places concerned. Migratory movements generally arise from the existence of prior links between sending and receiving countries based on colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or cultural ties (ibid., 2000:272). 4.​ PUSH-PULL THEORY ​ The most popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one propounded by Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory. This theory states that some people move because they are pushed out of their former location (push factors), or because they have been pulled or attracted to some places elsewhere (pull factors). Most of the movement or migration have been considered as an “implementing strategy” in order to attain the goal of migration. It is in this implementing strategy that migration is selective and more apparent at a certain age of the life cycle because there is a specific age-group of the population that is more prone to migration (Weeks, 1986:179-180). 18 TRENDS IN MIGRATION Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization for Migration, the mobility of people is increasing over time, either internal or international migration. These figures, however, remain a slim proportion of the world population, as these movements (both internal and international) constitute only around 12 percent of the world population (nine (9) percent for internal migration and three (3) percent for international migration). In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility has been notable for the past four and a half decades. Europe and Asia catered to around 75 million migrants each in the year 2015. This constitutes 62 percent of the total global international migrants. Table 9.3: Proportion of World Migrant Population (Source: International Organization for Migration Report, 2018:15) In 2017, it was estimated that there were around 80 million international migrants residing in Asia, while 78 million in Europe. In North America, on the other hand, hosted around 54 million international migrants (58 million in 2017), which constitute 22 percent of the total international migrants, Africa at 9 percent (25 million in 2017), Latin America and the Carribean at 4 percent (8.4 million in 2017) (IOM, 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern America and Oceania, international migrants comprised more than 10% of the total population in 2017. 19 For about 45 years until now, the United States of America has been the main country of destination for international migration. In 1970, there were around 12 million migrants to the USA. In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 million migrants. Figure 9.4: Top 20 Destinations and Origins of International Migrants in 2015 (millions). (Source: International Organization for Migration Report, 2018:19) According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every 5 migrants in the world lives in the top 20 largest cities. These cities include Sydney, Auckland, Singapore, London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Paris. 20 Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About two-thirds of international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million as of the year 2015. Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million migrants resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these high-income countries accommodated nearly 165 million of the total number of international migrants worldwide. According to region. The South-to-South migration (migration within developing countries) continued to grow compared to South-North migration (from developing to developed countries). In 2015, the South-to-South migration was estimated at 90.2 million, while the South-to-North migration was calculated at 85.3 million (http://gmdac.iom.int/global-migration-trends-factsheet). In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin for the largest numbers of international migrants - 106 million and 61 million, respectively. Latin America and the Caribbean followed with 38 million and Africa with 36 million. In terms of the country having the largest number of persons born in the country of origin whose citizens are now living outside its borders, India ranked one. The number of Indian-born persons residing abroad numbered 17 million in 2017, ahead of the number of Mexican-born persons living outside Mexico (13 million). The Russian Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan, and Ukraine also have large migrant populations living abroad, ranging from 6 to 11 million each (International Migration Report 2017). SPECIAL TYPES OF MIGRANTS 1.​ IRREGULAR MIGRANT ​ Irregular migrants, also known as undocumented or illegal migrants, are those who enter a country, usually in search of employment, without the necessary documents and permits (Castles, 2000:270). This is usually the case of labor migration flows. It is illegal because it does not go through the process of documentation from country of origin to the country of destination. Regular migrant may become an irregular migrant because of the following reasons: (1) prolonged stay in the host country in contravention with one or more of his/her visa conditions; (2) crossing borders without authorization; (3) unlawfully overstaying a visa period; (4) working in contravention of visa conditions; (5) being born into irregularity, among others (IOM, 2018:20) 21  2.​ MIGRANT IN HUMAN TRAFFICKING ​ Human trafficking is defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, or the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. (Article 3 of the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Surpress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children). DIASPORA AND TRANSNATIONALISM Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such as recruitment or military service, or by an initial movement of young people (usually male) pioneers. Once a movement is established, the migrants mainly follow ‘beaten paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and are helped by relatives and friends already in the area of immigration. Networks based on family or on common place of origin help provide shelter, work, assistance with bureaucratic procedures and support in personal difficulties. Diaspora refers to the community of “people, and often their descendants, from a specific country who are living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20). It is used interchangeably with transnational communities, where “migrants may establish and maintain connections with people in their home communities or migrants in other countries”. ​ REFUGEES -​ Refugee pertains to any person who, “owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reason of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable to, owing to such fear is unwilling to return to it (1951 UNCHR Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees to be A Refugee). 22  ​ ASYLUM SEEKERS -​ An asylum seeker pertains to any individual who seeks international protection but whose claim of refugee status has not yet been determined (Philips, 20011:2). In other words, an asylum seeker is anyone who falls short of the status of refugee. Article 14 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, “Everyone has the right to seek asylum and to enjoy in other countries asylum for persecution”. REFERENCES What Is Malthusian Theory Of Population? (n.d.). BYJUS. https://byjus.com/biology/malthusian-theory-of-population/ Economics Online. (2021, July 29). What Is the Malthusian Theory of Population? Economics Online. https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/managing_the_economy/what-is-the-malthusian-theory-of-p opulation.html/ 23