SW-23-REVIEW.pdf

I. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Human Behavior and Social Environment as one of the Knowledge Foundations of Social Work: Key Concepts This area focuses on the knowledge of the person and the environment-the person as a biopsychosocial (some would even include spiritual...

I. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Human Behavior and Social Environment as one of the Knowledge Foundations of Social Work: Key Concepts This area focuses on the knowledge of the person and the environment-the person as a biopsychosocial (some would even include spiritual) being and the interaction between him/her and the social, cultural, political and economic environment which influences his/her behavior. (Review Notes inSocial Work, 3rd edition, 1980). Derezotes (19…) illustrates.. Life Course Time Events Major Larger Generalized Societal Other System THE PERSON Immediate Family (bio Community Goods psychosocial Educational and spiritual being) Resources Services Political Nurturing Environment Economic Power Resources Sustaining Environment Person and Environment Interaction Social Functioning  It is fulfilling one’s roles in society in general to those in the immediate environment and to oneself. These functions include meeting one’s own basic needs and those of one’s dependents and making positive contributions to society.  Human needs include physical aspect (food, safety, shelter, health care and protection), personal fulfillment (education, recreation, values, esthetics, religion and accomplishment), emotional needs (a sense of belonging, mutual caring and companionship), and an adequate self-concept (self-concept, self-confidence and identity).  Social workers consider one of their major roles to be that of helping individuals, groups or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning. (Barker, Robert L., The Social Work Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1995). Dezerotes (19...) illustrates … ENVIRONMENT Time/Setting PERSON SITAUATION 1 Person in the Environment Configuration Skidmore (1991) illustrates social functioning as a triangle with the following sides: – satisfaction with roles in life – positive relationships with others – feelings of self-worth: Satisfaction of Positive relationships roles in life with others Feelings of self-worth Personality Theories and Human Development Personality Definitions:  Totality of the individual psychic qualities which includes temperament, traits, one’s mode of reaction and character.  A stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect, physique which determine his/her unique adjustment to his/her environment.  Individual’s unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits.  According to Alport, it is the dynamic organization of traits within the self that determines the individual’s unique way of playing his social roles. _______________________________________________________________________________ SIGMUND FREUD: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY The Structural Model of Personality According to Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality, personality is composed of three elements. These three elements of personality-- known as the id, the ego, and the superego--work together to create complex human behaviors.  These are not “parts” of personality in a physical sense; rather they are processes or systems of the mind.  Their job is to organize mental life and interact with one another in a dynamic way so that personality is influenced and changed.  These hypothetical constructs were designed to create a picture of the biological (id), psychological (ego) and social (superego) aspects of personality.  Each system constantly struggles to dominate the personality. 1.) Id – the origin of personality, the most basic of the three systems  The Id has no objective knowledge of reality.  It ruthlessly and relentlessly drives the organism toward pleasure.  This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviors.  It is therefore said to follow a pleasure principle. 2   The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant’s needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met.  However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings.  According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary process which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need. 2 categories of Instincts: Eros (Life Instincts)- serve for survival of the species Thanatos (Death Instincts)- Towards destructiveness- wish to commit aggressive acts. ID is subjective, directed-itself in its wants and demands. 2.) Ego – is the part of the personality that must deal with reality if the id’s desires are to be met  The ego functions according to a reality principle.  The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.  Ego reaction to threatening surges of instincts is anxiety (a state of extremely unpleasant emotional discomfort). 3 Types of Anxiety: Moral anxiety- result from guilt/shame-fail to live up to dictates of super-ego Reality anxiety- caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment Neurotic anxiety- fear that instinctual impulses (ID) overpowers ego control/gets into trouble. 3.) Super-ego – The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society--our sense of right and wrong.  Operates according to a morality principle – a code that concerns society’s values regarding right and wrong.  Superego can also offer favorable emotional experiences such as pride and self- respect through the influence of ego ideal – these are positive standards in the form of internal representations of idealized parental figures. Subsystem of Super-ego Conscience– an aspect or function of the superego which acts as the internal agent that punishes people when they do wrong through unpleasant emotions which include guilt and intense feeling of regret. Ego-ideal – experiences with reward to proper behavior. Inferiority feelings stems from ego-ideal (feelings of inferiority arise when the ego is unable to meet superego’s standard of perfection). Instincts and Defense Mechanism Freud considered sexual behavior and aggression to be instinctive drives. Throughout the animal kingdom, he argued, aggression helps animals to obtain needed food and territory, and sexual behavior maintains species; as such, both are necessary for survival. In our species, however, these aggressive tendencies and sexual desires run ahead on into cultural taboos against explicit sexual actions and uncontrolled violence. Freud believed that this struggle between biological drives and social inhibitions produces anxiety, and that the ego often relies on defense mechanisms to control and handle the anxiety effectively.  Denial- used often to describe those who seem unable to face reality or admit and obvious truth (i.e. "He's in denial."). – Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring. 3  – For example, drug addicts or alcoholics often deny that they have a problem, while victims of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occurred. – Denials function to protect the ego from things that the individual cannot cope with. While this may save us from anxiety or pain, denial also requires a substantial investment of energy. Because of this, other defenses are also used to keep these unacceptable feelings from consciousness.  Repression- acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these memories don't just disappear; they continue to influence our behavior. – For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships.  Displacement-involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening. – Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with our boss), we instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat (such as our spouses, children, or pets).  Sublimation- allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. – For example, a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick boxing as a means of venting frustration. – Freud believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways  Projection-the attribution of one’s own undesirable thoughts or characteristics to other people. – For example: someone who steals and incorrectly assumes other people cannot be trusted  Intellectualization- works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way. – This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and focus only on the intellectual component.  Rationalization- involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true explanation for the behavior. – For example, a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by saying they weren't attracted to the other person anyway.  Regressions- When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development.  Reaction Formation – when an individual exhibits, and at the conscious level believes she possesses feelings opposite to those possessed at the unconscious level. – An example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings. According to Sigmund Freud:  Personality is mostly established by the age of five.  Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.  Personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.  If the stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality.  If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. 4 Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development (1.) THE ORAL STAGE (0-2 years old) – During this stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.  The infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.  The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers.  If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression.  Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting. (2.)THE ANAL STAGE (2-4 years old) –the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.  The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs.  Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.  Positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.  Inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes.  If parents take an approach that is too lenient, an anal-expulsive personalitycould develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.  If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive. (3.) THEPHALLIC STAGE (4-6 years old) – between four to six years, pleasure gratification of children shifts from the anal to the genital region which Freud calls the phallic stage.  Children derive pleasure from activities associated with stroking and manipulating their sex organs.  Children also discover the differences between males and females.  Oedipus Complex- the stage when young boy experience feelings of possessive love for their mother and see their fathers asrivals. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.  Electra Complex- has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.  Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.  For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.  Male fixated at this stage with failure to identify appropriately with the father may become a “don juan” – devoting his life to sexual promiscuity in quest for sexual gratification. If the father denied him as a child or because the child failed to take on the masculine characteristics due to weak identification with the father – the result could be a feminine orientation and possibly an attraction to men. (4.) THELATENCY STAGE (6-12 years old) – characterized by absence of a dominant erogenous zone  Many of the disturbing and conflicting feelings of children are buried in the sub- conscious mind.  The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm.  The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.  This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self- confidence. (5.) THEGENITAL STAGE (12 years and up) – starts with the onset of puberty  The individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.  Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs and, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. 5   If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well- balanced, warm, and caring.  The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas. Among Freud’s concepts and ideas the following are most useful in understanding client behaviour and in planning interventions:  Homeostasis- the organism’s tendency to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.  Psychological Determinism- thoughts and actions are caused by one’s unsatisfied desires of drives.  Defense mechanisms and personality structure _______________________________________________________________________________ ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (EGO PSYCHOLOGY)  Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a Danish – German – American Development psychologist and psychoanalyst. He is best known among psychologist.  His theory places emphasis on social influences.  According to him children are active, adaptive explorers.  Assumes that human beings are basically rational creatures whose thoughts, feelings and actions are largely controlled by the ego.  Epigenetic Principle- development proceeds by stages. Age stage is not passed through and then left behind. Ego is believed to have 12 functions: a. Reality testing b. Judgment c. Sense of reality of the world and self d. Regulation and control of desires, affects and impulses e. Object relations f. Thought processes g. Adaptive regression in the service of the ego h. Defensive functioning i. Stimulus barrier j. Motor functioning k. Mastery-competence l. Synthetic integrative function STAGES CRISIS FAVORABLE UNFAVORABLE OUTCOME OUTCOME CHILDHOOD 1st year Trust vs. Mistrust Faith in the Suspicion, fear of environment and future events future events 2nd year Autonomy vs. Shame A sense of self-control Feelings of shame & Doubt and adequacy and self-doubt 3rd through 5th year Initiative vs. Guilt Ability to be a self- A sense of guilt starter, to initiate and inadequacy to one’s own activities be on one’s own 6th year to puberty Industry vs. Inferiority Ability to learn how things work, to understand and organize TRANSITION YEARS Adolescences Identity vs. Role Seeing oneself as a Confusion over Confusion unique and integrated who and what one person really is ADULTHOOD Early adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Ability to make Inability to form commitments to affectionate 6  others, to love relationship Middle adulthood Generativity vs. Concern for family Concern only for Stagnation/self- and society in general self-one’s own absorption well-being and prosperity Maturity/aging years Integrity vs. Despair A sense of integrity Dissatisfaction with and fulfillment; life; despair over willingness to face prospect of death death 1. Contributions and Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory 1.1 Contributions  Emphasis on the rational, adaptive nature of human beings.  Emphasis many of the social conflicts and personal dilemmas that people may remember, are currently experiencing, can easily anticipate or can see affecting people they know.  Have described many of the central issues in life in his eight psychosocial stages. 1.2 Criticisms  Being vague about the causes of psychosocial development.  Unstandardized interviews and observations.  Basically descriptive but not adequately explain how or why this development takes place _______________________________________________________________________________________ BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING B.F. SKINNER: Operant Conditioning Skinner uses the term operant behavior to refer to his idea that an organism has to do something in order to get a reward, that is, it must operate on its environment. Basic premise: any organism (including man) tends to repeat what is was doing at the time its behavior was reinforced and that the task is a matter of baiting each step of the way, thus gradually leading the subject to the required performance. The key to operant conditioning is the immediate reinforcement of a response. The organism first does something and then reinforced by the environment. Reinforcement is defined as any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It is also defined as any event that increases the probability that a particular response will increase in frequency. Reinforcement may be positive or negative. Responses may be reinforced by the presentation (positive) or removal (negative) of particular consequences. 3 kinds of Consequences in Operant Conditioning a.) Positive Reinforcement – a process whereby some event, usually a stimulus increases the likelihood of a response on which its presentation is contingent – any stimulus that when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur b.) Negative Reinforcement – is a process whereby the likelihood of a response increases when it is followed by the termination, reduction or absence of a stimulus c.) Punishment – responses that are followed by the presentation of aversive stimuli decrease in likelihood of being performed in the future – the presentation of an aversive stimulus such as the removal of a positive one 2 types of Reinforcement a.) Primary reinforcers – innately reinforcing 7  – powerful in increasing the chance that a particular behavior will occur – in primary reinforcers, the increase in response rate occurs without training b.) Secondary reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers – influence behavior through training – are not innately reinforcing – done specifically by developing associations with a primary reinforcer – their power to reinforce behavior is acquired (example: money, grades, tokens) Both types of reinforcers are most effective when they immediately follow the responses they are intended to increase  Extinction – a process related to operant conditioning Extinction of a learned behavior occurs as a result of its repetition while receiving no further reinforcement  Shaping behavior – is the acquisition of complex behaviors – such as playing tennis and solving problems. It can generate complex behaviors that do not occur naturally through a series of contingencies in a program. Each stage of the program evokes a response and also serves to prepare the organism to respond at some later point. It does not entail trial and error at random points in the learning process. _______________________________________________________________________________ ALBERT BANDURA: Social Learning Theory The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. Self-regulation- controlling our own behavior. Those who are confident and have high level of self-efficacy has the ability to regulate own behavior. 3 steps of self-regulation: - Self-observation: know self - Judgment: don’t set standards too high, don’t set self for failure - Self-response:use reward not punishment, celebrate victories, don’t dwell on failure - Component processes underlying observational learning: (1) Attention: including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) (2) Retention: including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal (3) Motor Reproduction: including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback (4) Motivation: including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement Scope/Application:  Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification.  It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs.  In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts. Example: The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair 8  shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised. Principles: 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. _______________________________________________________________________________ HUMANISTIC THEORIES The central focus of all humanistic theories of personality is the concept of self.Self refers to the individual’s own personal internal experiences and subjective evaluations. Humanistic theories reject the notion that underlying traits or unconscious motivations and conflicts are important forces in the development of personality, arguing instead that human beings are endowed with free will and free choice. Also, it rejects the idea that environmental forces are the major determinants of personality; instead, individuals are seen as aware human beings capable of unique experiences based on their own view of the world and self. CARL ROGER: Humanistic Psychology  A person’s unique subjective experience of reality and self is central to any dynamic understanding of personality.  Roger’s personality theory is often referred to as a “self” theory because it focuses on the individual’s self-perception and personal view of the world.  We develop a self-concept through our experience with the world, our interactions with other people, and what other people tell us.  We build our own lives, and we are all free to choose for ourselves rather than being at the mercy of learned stimuli or unconscious forces.  This theory stresses that each person is purposeful in his/her behavior and is positively striving to reach self-fulfillment.  The major cause of maladjustment is an individual’s perception that his/her sense of self is in opposition to personal expectations or goals. Structures of Personality: a. Organism- focus of all experience. b. Self or self-concept- subjective nature (own picture of self), collection on self-perception, not entirely consistent with external reality (distortion), the I or ME ideal self of what the person wanted to be. c. Phenomenological field- subjective reality, an individual behave according to his/her reality and not on stimulating conditions. Key Concepts:  Organismic Valuing- Organisms know what is good for them. Evolution has provided us with the senses, the tastes, the discriminations we need: When we hunger, we find food -- not just any food, but food that tastes good. Food that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled, rotten, and unhealthy.  Positive Regard- We instinctively value. It is a term used by Rogers for things like love, affection, attention, nurturance, and so on.  Positive self-regard- It is self-esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image. We achieve this positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our years of 9  growing up. Without this self-regard, we feel small and helpless, and we fail to become all that we can be.  Conditions of worth- As we grow up, our parents, teachers, peers, the media, and others, only give us what we need when we show we are “worthy,” rather than just because we need it. We get a drink when we finish our class, we get something sweet when we finish our vegetables, and most importantly, we get love and affection if and only if we “behave!”.  Conditional positive regard-Getting positive regard on “on condition”. Because we do indeed need positive regard, these conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves into a shape determined, not by our organismic valuing or our actualizing tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have our best interests at heart. A “good little boy or girl” may not be a healthy or happy boy or girl!.  Conditional positive self-regard- We begin to like ourselves only if we meet up with the standards others have applied to us, rather than if we are truly actualizing our potentials. And since these standards were created without keeping each individual in mind, more often than not we find ourselves unable to meet them, and therefore unable to maintain any sense of self-esteem. Actualization Society Organismic Valuing Conditions of Worth Positive Regard Conditional Positive Regard Positive Self-Regard Conditional Positive Self-Regard Real Self Ideal Self Incongruence=Neurosis Congruence - This happens when the person’s self-concept is reasonably accurate. Incongruity – The gap between the real self and the ideal self, the “I am” and the “I should”. The greater the gap, the more incongruity. The more incongruity, the more suffering. – Incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by neurosis: being out of synch with your own self. Defenses:  Denial - You block out the threatening situation altogether. An example might be the person who never picks up his test or asks about test results, so he doesn't have to face poor grades (at least for now). Denial for Rogers does also include what Freud called repression: If keeping a memory or an impulse out of your awareness -- refuse to perceive it -- you may be able to avoid (again, for now) a threatening situation.  Perceptual distortion is a matter of reinterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening. It is very similar to Freud's rationalization. A student that is threatened by tests and grades may, for example, blame the professor for poor teaching, trick questions, bad attitude, or whatever. Psychosis - Psychosis occurs when a person's defenses are overwhelmed, and their sense of self becomes "shattered" into little disconnected pieces. The fully-functioning person: (has the following qualities/characteristics) a. Openness to experience - It is the accurate perception of one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings. It also means being able to accept reality, again including one's feelings. b. Existential living - This is living in the here-and-now. c. Organismic trusting - We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process. We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what comes natural. d. Experiential freedom - Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really had free will. We feel very much as if we do. This is not to say, of 10  course, that we are free to do anything at all: Rogers says that the fully- functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes responsibility for his choices. e. Creativity - If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate in the world. A fully-functioning person, in touch with actualization, will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. Therapy: Carl Rogers is best known for his contributions to therapy. His therapy has gone through a couple of name changes along the way: He originally called it non-directive, because he felt that the therapist should not lead the client, but rather be there for the client while the client directs the progress of the therapy. As he became more experienced, he realized that, as "non-directive" as he was, he still influenced his client by his very "non-directiveness". In other words, clients look to therapists for guidance, and will find it even when the therapist is trying not to guide. So he changed the name to client-centered. He still felt that the client was the one who should say what is wrong, find ways of improving, and determine the conclusion of therapy -- his therapy was still very "client-centered" even while he acknowledged the impact of the therapist. Qualities a therapist must possess: a. Congruence- genuineness, honesty with the client b. Empathy- the ability to feel what the client feels c. Respect- acceptance, unconditional positive regards towards the client ABRAHAM MASLOW: Hierarchy of Needs/Motivation Theory  Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and developing as a person to achieve individual potential.  There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: 1. Physiological Needs  These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, including the need for water, air, food, and sleep.  Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met. 2. Security Needs  Include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs.  Examples: health insurance, safe neighborhood 3. Social Needs  Needs for belonging, love and affection. 4. Esteem Needs  These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment. 5. Self-actualizing Needs  This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.  Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others and interested in fulfilling their potential. Types of Needs  Deficiency Needs (D-needs) - These needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. - physiological, security, social and esteem needs - Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.  Growth Need (also known as being needs or B-needs) - Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. 11  CARL JUNG: Analytical Psychology Distinctive features:  Human Behavior- individual and racial history (causality)  Aims and aspirations (teleology)  Constant search for wholeness and completion  Yearning for rebirth Unconscious:  Personal unconscious  Collective unconscious – Storehouse of latent memories – Inherited from ancestral past – Repeated experience over many generations – More or less same collective unconscious Archetypes:  Persona: Mask person adopt in response to demands of social convention and tradition; part society expects one to play in life; public personality.  Anima: Feminine archetype of man.  Animus: Masculine archetype of woman.  Shadow: behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings and actions; either hidden from public by persona or repressed into personal unconscious Self- Midpoint of personality that holds other systems together, represent human striving for unity/wholeness; goal people constantly strive for but rarely reached. It is the archetype that represents the transcendence of the opposite. Personality types: – Introvert/Introversion (inner directed)- internal world of one’s thoughts, feelings and experience – Extravert/Extraversion (outer directed)- external world of people and things 4 Fundamental Psychological Functions:  Thinking  Feeling  Sensing  Intuition ALFRED ADLER: Individual Psychology He assumes that man is motivated primarily by social motives. He stressed social context of personality development. He believed that humans are social creatures by nature not by habits. General Contribution: Social determinants of behavior. He is the first to focus attention on the importance of birth order as factor governing personality. His crowning achievement as personality theories is the concept of creative self. All other concepts are subordinated to it. This theory acknowledges… – Social nature of human beings[ unique creative capacities of people to transcend perceived limitations – Role of environment to individual’s lifestyle and creative self Basic Concepts:  Striving for Superiority 12  – This is the foremost source of human motivation in his thinking. There are 3 stages regarding the final goal of human: to be aggressive, to be powerful, to be superior. How this striving for superiority does come into being in a person? Inferiority feelings + compensation: In general, feelings of inferiority arise from a sense of incompletion or imperfection in any sphere of life.  Style of life (lifestyle): Principles that explains the uniqueness of a person. The style of life is a compensation for a particular inferiority.  Creative self: People make their own personalities. They construct them out of raw materials of heredity and experiences. Superiority: Concept of creative self, ‘an upward drive’, an innate part of life. Compensation: Effort to overcome marginalized/real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities. _______________________________________________________________________________ JEAN PIAGET: Cognitive Development Theory  Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children.  Cognitive Development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities  In Piaget’s view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. Key Concepts: a.) Scheme or schema  It is an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope with or explain some aspect of experience.  In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.  For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child’s sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include this new information. b.) Assimilation  The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema’s.  The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.  In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it “dog” is an example of assimilating the animal into the child’s dog schema. c.) Accommodation  Involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process. d.) Equilibration  Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).  Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next. Four Stages of Cognitive Development: 1.) THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth to age 2) 13   The dominant cognitive structures are behavioral schemes, which evolve as infants begin to coordinate their sensory input and motor responses in order to “act on” and get to “know” the environment.  Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening to learn more about the environment Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage: 1. Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking. 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable. 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth. 4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken. 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver. 6. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During thistime, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions. 2.) THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (age 2 – 7)  Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period.  Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.  During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.  Children’s thoughts at this stage are also described as irreversible, essentially because they still lack an ability to go back and rethink a process or concept, or to conserve these. 3.) THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 – 11 or 12)  This stage is considered a transition between prelogical thought and completely logical thought.  During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations.  Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. Two major cognitive events or operations occur during this stage: (1)Conservation – refers to retention of the same properties (volume, mass, number or other aspects of physical environment) even if they are rearranged differently or reshaped. For example, the child is able to recognize that the volume of water remains the same, no matter what size or shape the container it is poured into. (2)Reversibility – refers to the completion of certain operations in the reverse order and ending up the same. For instance, the child will be able to understand that water can exist in several states. Abstract Thought: Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning. Problem-Solving: the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem. 14 4.) THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD (through adulthood)  Mental operations applied to abstractions  Development of logical and systematic thinking _______________________________________________________________________________ LAURENCE KOHLBERG: Theory of Moral Development Three Main Levels of Moral Development LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY Children’s judgments are based on external criteria. Standards of right or wrong are absolute and laid down by authority. Stage 1: Punishment-and-obedience orientation – the goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences. The child will obey authorities to avoid punishment but may not consider an act wrong if it will not be detected and punished. Stage 2: Naïve hedonism/negative punishment– conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or satisfy personal objectives. LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY Children’s judgments are based on the norms and expectations of the group. Stage 3: “Good boy” or “good girl” orientation – moral behavior is that which pleases, helps or is approved of by the others. Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining morality/authority – what is right is what conforms to the rules of legitimate authority. LEVEL 3:POSTCONVENTIONAL (OR PRINCIPLED) MORALITY The individual defines right and wrong in terms of broad principles of justice that could conflict with written laws or with the dictates of authority figures. Morally right and legally proper are not always one and the same. Stage 5: Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws/social contract orientation – the individual is aware that the purpose of just laws is to express the will of the majority and further human values. Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience (highest moral stage) – The individual defines right and wrong on the basis of self-chosen ethical principles of his/her own conscience. – This is Kohlberg’s vision of ideal moral reasoning but because it is so very rare and virtually no one functions consistently at this level, Kohlberg came to view it as a hypothetical construct. ______________________________________________________________________________ KAREN HORNEY: Psychoanalytical Social Theory  Cultural condition: influence personality conflicts rather than the demand of ID, Ego, Super-ego.  Major concept: Basic anxiety which can be related to two basic needs in childhood- safety + satisfaction  Satisfaction: Children needs for food, water, sleep (at least minimal satisfaction is necessary for children’s survival).  Security: Need for security+ freedom from fear Dynamics: 15  A child who is abused by parents in one or more ways experience basic hostility towards parents- now child is caught between unfortunately dependence on parents and hostilities towards them. Feeling of hostility caused by parents does not remain isolated; instead it generalizes to entire world and to all people in it. The child is now convinced that everything and everyone is potentially dangerous. At this point the child is said to be experiencing basic anxiety. Real vs. Ideal Self Horney contends that a person who needs for safety and satisfaction have not been adequately met tends to develop an idealized self which may be variance of real self. Horney’s idea of healthy self depends on person’s view about self which have been formed through his experience with significant others like family. FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGY/SIKOLOHIYANG FILIPINO 1. Definition  It is the embodiment of the systematic and scientific study, appreciation and application of indigenous knowledge for, of and by the Filipinos of their own psychological make-up, society and culture, rooted in their historical past, ethnic diversity and the dynamic interaction of Filipinos with forces within and outside their social and physical boundaries.  It traces its roots to liberalism, the propaganda movement, the writings of Jacinto, Mabini and Del Pilar which all imbued with nationalistic fervor.  It seeks to explain Philippine realities from the Filipino perspective, taking into account the peculiarities and distinct values and characteristics of the Filipino which the Western models invariably fail to consider.  It gathers data on the Filipino psyche by utilizing culturally appropriate field methods in the form of pagtatanong-tanong, pakikiramdam, panunuluyan and pakikipamuhay. 2. Major Characteristics  Emphasis in psychology on (1) identity and national consciousness (2) social awareness and involvement (3) psychology of language and culture (4) application and bases of Filipino Psychology in health practices, agriculture, art, mass media, religion, etc.  Primary areas of protest – it is against a psychology that perpetuates the colonial status of the Filipino mind; it is against a psychology used for the exploitation of the masses; against the imposition to a 3rd world country of psychologies developed in industrialized countries.  In terms of psychological practice – it is concerned with folk practices/indigenous techniques, babaylan, or katalonan techniques of healing; popular religio-political movements; community/rural psychology 3. Understanding the Psychology of the Filipino 2.1 Who is the Filipino? Important Basis in Understanding the Filipino  Birth  Geographical Origin  Blood  Historical Background  Socio-cultural characteristics 2.2 Filipino Identity  self-image  projected image  stereotype image 2.3 Filipino Values and Paninindigan (Commitment and Conviction) Paninindigan Respect and Concern - Paggalang at Pagmamalasakit Helping - Pagtulong Understanding Limitations - Pagpuno sa Kakulangan Sensitivity and Regards - Pakikiramdam 16  Rapport and Acceptance - Gaan ng Loob Human Concern and Interaction as one with others - Pakikipagkapwa Filipino National Values Shame - Hiya Yielding to the Will of the Leader or the Majority - Pakikisama Gratitude - Utang na Loob Sensitivity to Personal Affront - Amor Propio Togetherness in Common Effort - Bayanihan SOCIAL CHANGE THEORIES I. Overview  Social Change- It is the variations over time in a society’s laws, norms, values and institutional arrangements.(Barker, Robert L., The Social Work Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1995).  Social change theories are concerned with the macro level issues which defines the individual’s situation. These theories can be generally be classified as functionalist theories and conflict theories. II. Functionalist Theories Key ideas in functionalist theories are stability, function and roles, and adaptation. Simply put -- 1. The objective of every society is to become stable. 2. Each member or unit of society has a particular function and role which contributes to its maintenance or stability. 3. Differences may arise from the role performance of each member or unit in society, as well as the presence of external forces that may affect the stability of society. Thus adaptation to each other and adaptation to external forces is important.  GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY – A system is usually defined as a whole, a unit, composed of people and their interactions, including their relationships. Each person in the system is related to at least some others in the system in a more or less stable way within a particular time and space. – Although a system should be viewed as a constantly changing whole, that is, always in process of movement towards its goals, its parts are assumed to interact in a more or less table structure at any particular point in time. – Views the client, the worker and the agency as social systems that comprise a social system framework. Assumptions: 1. Human behavior is seen from a multiplicity of factors, internal and external, operating in a transaction. A systems approach is an orienting framework rather than a specific theory of human behavior 2. Human systems: A system is a dynamic order of parts and processes standing in mutual interaction. There are many kinds of system, animate and inanimate, but social service workers are interested in those systems that are composed of interacting human beings. 3. Individuals as a system: Individuals are composed of dynamic parts and processes, each making up a subsystem or domain. Within the individual, the biophysical and psychological are the principal domains. In the psychological domain are the cognitive, affective and behavioral subsystems. 4. Social systems and the social environment: People live out their lives within the context of social systems and norms and institutions which are generated through social interactions within these systems. The ever-changing social environment serves both as a source of stress and source of support. 5. Roles: Individuals are connected to social systems through the roles they occupy in them. This has implications for SW practice and practice principles: 17  (a) For problem and need identification  identify of the system to be addressed  identify the condition in that system to be understood (b) For problem analysis (premise: the state or condition of a system at any point in time is a function of the interaction between it and the environment in which it operates)  identify the factors about the system itself that contribute to the condition  identify the factors in the social context of the system that contributes to the condition (c) For resource identification  identify the resources that exist within the system itself  identify the resources that exist within the environment of the system General Concepts of the Systems Theory: – Boundariesin systems perspective is defined as a closed circle around selected variables where there is less interchange of energy or communication across the circle than there is within the circle – Closed systems do not interact with any other systems; they neither accept input from them nor convey output to them. When systems are closed, they are said to have the quality called entropy. What this means is that closed systems over time tend toward less differentiation of their elements. Thus they lose organization and effective function. – All social systems must be open (the concept of open systems) to input from other systems with which they interact and develop. – Holonwhich means that each level in a system faces both ways towards the smaller systems of which it is composed and towards the larger system of which it is part. – Steady staterefers to how a system maintains itself by receiving input and using it. – Differentiationrefers to the idea that systems become more complex with more different kinds of components over time. – Non-summativity means that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. – Equifinalitysimply put is “different beginnings, one ending”. – Reciprocityimplies that if one part of the system changes, the change interacts with all other parts which also change. As a result of reciprocity exhibit both equifinality (you can reach the same result in several different ways) and multi- finality (similar circumstances can lead to different results because parts of the system interact in different ways. – Inputrefers to energy being fed into the system across the boundary. – Outputwould mean the effects on the environment of energy passed through the boundary of a system. – Feedback loopsmean the information and energy passed to the system caused by its outputs affecting the environment which tell it the results of its outputs Other Important Concepts in Social Work using Systems Theory:  Pincus and Minahan outlined six systems that social workers interact with in their practice: (1) change agent system: agency or institution that employs social workers (2) client system: an individual, group or community which asked help from the social worker, or have entered into helping contract with the social worker, or are expected to benefit from the intervention (3) target system: people that the social workers need to change or influence in order to accomplish the helping goals (may include the client system) (4) action system: those which the social worker interacts in a cooperative way in order to bring about change helpful to the client (5) professional system: professional association of social workers, the education system by which workers are prepared, and the values and sanctions of professional practice (6) problem identification system: the system that acts to bring a potential client to the attentions of the social worker Levels of Social Systems:  Micro level: Individual experiences in the family, school, at work, during leisure time, and it is to a large extent specific to the individual. The micro environment is very important in the development of the individual in that it determines the type of situations an individual encounters. 18   Meso level:It is that part of the total environment that, in some way or another, influences and determines the character and functioning of the micro environment. It included relationships between major groups, organizations and institutions that the individual’s daily life touches.  Macro level:It is common to most members of the groups living in it, and involves the physical, social, cultural, economic and political structure of the larger society in which individuals grow up  ROLE THEORY – A role is a socially expected behavior prescribed to a person occupying a particular status or position in a social system. Social norms guide the definition of a particular role of a person, as well as the expected attitude and behavior for each. – Social functioning is the sum of the roles performed by the individual. Important concepts:  Status: One’s rank or position in society. This may be based on the socio-economic standing, age and gender (among others) of a person.  Norms: Refer to rules and standards of behavior in a particular culture or group.  Role sets or role clusters: An array of roles that one can take on at any particular time (e.g. a 17-year old female may have the following roles: daughter, sister, student, girlfriend).  Role complementarity or reciprocity: Paired roles such as parent-child, teacher- student.  Role conflict: Conflicting expectations from a person occupying two or more positions at the same time (e.g. women who engage in paid work to supplement family income but are expected in their society to be fulltime home makers).  Role incongruity: Situation wherein the personal perception of a role differs from the expectation of society or one’s significant others (see also example for role conflict).  CULTURE THEORY – This theory expounds on the critical influence culture on a person’s internal (thinking) and external (actions) processes. – Culture is defined as a “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of his society” (Hunt et al, 1987).It refers to the entire way of life of people or society that they create acquired from other societies, and ready to transmit to subsequent generations (Mendoza, 2008). Important concepts about culture are:  it is learned  it is shared  it is cumulative  it is dynamic and adaptive  it is a whole Aspect of Culture  Beliefs – concepts about how the world operates and where individuals fit in it; may be rooted in blind faith, experiences, traditions, or scientific observations  Values – the general concepts of what is good, right, appropriate, worthwhile and important either reflected on behaviour or expressed verbally.  Norms – the written and unwritten rules that guide behaviour and conduct appropriate to given situation.  Folkways and customs – behaviour patterns of everyday life  Mores – folkways which involve ethical values III. Conflict Theories Key ideas in conflict theories are difference, conflict, dominance and power, and change: 19 1. Society is composed of different people, with different world views and practices. 2. Although differences are recognized and actions are taken that these differences do not disrupt the stability of society, conflict still arises because of the dominance of certain worldviews / group on which power is concentrated. 3. Change is an inevitable result of the assertions of non-dominant groups to transform society into a more equitable one (if not to overthrow and replace the dominant group / worldview).  Conflict theories expound on different sources and forms of power. Socio-economic power is usually cited (rich vs. poor), however there are also other sources of power: for instance, one’s age (adults vs. children), gender (men vs. women; heterosexuals vs. homosexuals), race (Caucasians vs. Asians), and ethnicity (people from the “mainstream” cultures vs. indigenous peoples).  Marxist and Feminist theories are examples of conflict theories.  MARXIST THEORY – The theory of Karl Marx was based on the premise that inevitable and continual conflict is caused by inequality that result from social and class differences. During his time, he saw society as basically divided into workers (proletariats) and capitalists (bourgeoisie). While in theory, the relationship between the two groups is a complementary one (the workers providing labor while the capitalists have the means and tools of production), it is actually exploitative to the disadvantage of the workers. Root of Oppression Focal Issues Proposed Strategy Liberal Women were deprived Women’s formal Legal reform; widening Feminism of opportunities to education and of opportunities for make them full and participation in women to study equal partners of men politics in society Radical The existence of Violence against Consciousness-raising; Feminism patriarchy or the women (particularly building women’s dominance of the male sexual violence); communes worldview that has put lesbianism and women in a secondary homosexuality position in society – and social institutions exist to keep things that way Socialist Working class women Discrimination Women’s liberation Feminism are doubly oppressed against the working should come hand-in- because of their socio- class women on the hand with class equality economic status and basis of their gender – coalition building their gender and class across class and women’s groups  First, the wages given to the workers do not reflect the full value of the wealth created by the product they made. Profit accrues to the capitalists, while the working class becomes poorer. The disadvantaged situation of the working class is further aggravated because the capitalists also control institutions that define world around them, for instance, governments, churches and schools.  Marx sees revolution or a violent change is necessary when polarization between the exploited and exploiters become extreme because the latter refuse to accept fundamental change.  In time, the ideas of Marx have been expounded to explain not only the situation of socio- economic inequalities but also other inequalities in society such as racial and ethnic discrimination, and gender inequality. It has been widely used as a framework in analyzing social institutions, including the family.  FEMINIST THEORY – Feminism is based on the idea that there is gender discrimination in society, and that it is the women and all things associated with the feminine or femininity that are 20  considered inferior relative to the male or masculinity. There are many theories on feminism and all of them expound on the following key questions: (1) why are women oppressed, and (2) what should be done to end this oppression. – Another strand of feminism is the Third World Feminism. Women from third world countries such as the Philippines are situated differently from women from developed countries, hence their distinct articulation of feminism which interlinks gender oppression to class, ethnic and racial discrimination. – Finally, gender equality is a desired goal of each of these strands of feminism; it would be erroneous to treat them as mutually exclusive of each other, particularly with regard to the issues they carry and their proposed strategies. Other Concepts Adopted From or Related to Feminism (and relevant to social work practice!)  Gender equality means that women and men enjoy the same status and conditions and have equal opportunity for realizing their potential to contribute to the political, economic, social and cultural development of their countries. They should also benefit equally from the results of development.  Gender equity moves beyond a focus on equal treatment. It means giving to those who have less on the basis of needs, and taking steps to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that prevent women and men from otherwise operating on a level playing field. Equity can be understood as the means, and equality is the end. Equity leads to equality.  Patriarchy: The "rule of the father," or a universal political structure that favors men over women. It was originally used by anthropologists to describe the social structure in which one old man, the patriarch, has absolute power over everyone else in the family. It also refers to male domination of political power and domination that maintains an unjust system for the benefit of the rulers at the expense of the ruled.  Gender Mainstreaming or Gender and Development (GAD) mainstreaming is the main strategy of the Philippine government for ensuring that the government pursues gender equality in all aspects of the development process to achieve the vision of a gender-responsive society where women and men equally contribute to and benefit from development.  Gender Sensitivity:The ability to recognize gender issues and to recognize women's different perceptions and interests arising from their different social position and gender roles.  Multiple burdensof women: A situation referring to the heavy workload of women and the many, overlapping tasks involved, which if computed in terms of hours would total more than 24 hours. This workload consists of unpaid reproductive work, paid productive work, community management, and all other work necessary for the survival of the family.  Gender Stereotyping:Society's perceptions and value systems that instill an image of women as weak, dependent, subordinate, indecisive, emotional and submissive. Men, on the other hand, are strong, independent, powerful, dominant, decisive and logical. Unexamined images, ideas or beliefs associated with a particular group that have become fixed in a person's mind and are not open to change. For example, women's roles, functions and abilities are seen to be primarily tied to the home.  Gender Subordination:Submission, sometimes due to force or violence, or being under the authority of one sex. It often results in women having no control over available resources and having no personal autonomy.  COMMUNICATION THEORY Communication – the process of transferring and sharing messages and meanings through the use of symbols like words, gestures and sounds Elements of Communication: Source – origin of the message Message – the idea that is communicated Channel – the means by which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver (e.g. oral. Written or body language) Receiver – the target of communication who interprets the message being transmitted. 21  Effects – the changes occurring in the receiver as a result of the transmission of the message (e.g. changes in knowledge, attitude and behaviour) Feedback – the information goes back to the sender and tells him how his message is being received which can guide his further communication and repair any change that may have taken place ABNORMALITY, MALADAPTIVENESS AND DISORDER Principles 1. Normal/adaptive aspects of personality do not differ in kind or type from the abnormal or maladaptive aspects or personality; they differ only in degree. 2. There is continuity between normal and abnormal personality; the study of personality disorder is the study of the same subject matter from a different perspective. Definition of Terms  Normal- Refers to that which is relatively average or typical  Abnormal – That which is somewhat atypical or different from the norm or average. There is no hard and fast line between normal and abnormal psychological functioning and personality.  Adaptive behavior – It is when the behavior helps the person deal with challenge, cope with stress, and accomplish her/his goals. If the person behaves effectively, s/he has an adaptive personality.  Maladaptive behavior – The behavior that makes the situation worse instead of better. If the person usually behaves ineffectively, she/he has a maladaptive personality, a disordered personality, or a personality disorder. - Normality and adaptation often go hand in hand and statistical deviation and maladaptiveness often go hand in hand, but this is not always the case. - The distinctions between normal and abnormal and between adaptive and maladaptive behaviors are fuzzy and often arbitrary. Example – Having an IQ of 60 is both statistically deviant and maladaptive in most of the ways maladaptiveness is measured; an IQ of 140 is just as statistically deviant as an IQ of 60, but it is not maladaptive. – Shyness is very common and therefore statistically normal, but shyness is almost always maladaptive to some extent, because it almost always interferes with a person’s ability to accomplish what she/he wants to accomplish in life and relationships.  Personality Disorder – personalities that are much more maladaptive than adaptive and much more maladaptive than the personalities of most other people. - Such personalities are also statistically deviant or abnormal, and most personalities that are extremely deviant statistically are also maladaptive, but not always. - In talking about disordered personality, we are more concerned with maladaptiveness than with statistical deviance. - The extent to which a behavior or behavior pattern is adaptive or maladaptive depends on a number of factors such as the goals the person is trying to accomplish and the social norms and expectations of a given situation. - Normal, abnormal, adaptive, and maladaptive are points on a continuum, not different types or categories of behaviors or personalities; there is no clear distinction between normal personality and disordered personality. - Disorder does not mean disease; it simply means that the person’s behavior creates disorder in his/her life and the lives of other people. Major Features of Disordered Personality 1. They have great difficulty getting along with other people and report a history of disruptive relationships with family, friends, and co-workers. - Have great difficulty regulating or controlling their own behavior. - They have goals that are maladaptive, and they may go about trying to attain their goals in maladaptive ways. - They are not distressed about their own behavior, but other people with whom they live, work, or otherwise interact often become very upset about their behavior. 22  2. They have difficulty learning from experience. - Although their behavior constantly causes problems for them and others, they rarely change, and if they do change, the change is usually temporary. 3. They usually do not accept responsibility for their own behavior and problems and typically blame other people when things go wrong. - This tendency to blame others is one reason they do not learn from experience and do not change their behavior. 4. People who display personality disorders do not fit well in psychotherapy for all of the above reasons. - They bring their maladaptive interpersonal styles into the therapy session. - Have difficulty establishing a close and trusting relationship with the therapist. - They are more interested in talking about how other people need to change than about how they need to change. - Their problematic patterns are both chronic and pervasive. Other Features of Personality Disorder 1. Tenuous stability – emotional fragility and lack of emotional resilience in response to stress.  The person displaying a personality disorder does not hold up well under stress and has trouble “bouncing back” or returning to normal after a stressful experience. 2. Adaptive inflexibility – the person has relatively few effective strategies for relating to other people, achieving life goals, and coping with stress and uses these few strategies rigidly in situations for which the strategies are inappropriate.  These persons have far fewer ways of getting along with other people, dealing with the problems that arise at times in all relationships, getting what they want from life, and dealing with stress.  Because they have very few strategies, they keep trying the same thing over and over again, even though it does not work, because that is all they know how to do. 3. Vicious circle – a situation that starts out bad and gets worse the more a person tries to cope with it or resolve it.  Vicious circles are the result of ineffective and rigid coping strategies.  What starts out as a minor and ordinary problem or disagreement between two people becomes a major problem when the person’s limited and ineffective strategies for solving interpersonal problems add fuel to the fire of the conflict.  The person who creates vicious cycles has a knack for “making mountains out of molehills.”  The person then uses the fact that the problem got worse as evidence that his/her problematic and distorted beliefs about him/herself and other people are indeed correct. Personality in general is self-perpetuating:  One reason for this is that our beliefs about ourselves and other people and the beliefs that others hold about us are formed early in our life and become self-fulfilling prophesies.  We tend to behave in ways that are consistent with our own and others’ expectations. Causes of Personality Disorders a. Genetic predisposition b. Learning experiences c. Culture DSM-IV-TR PERSONALITY DISORDERS - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the “official” manual of diagnostic categories for psychological and psychiatric disorders. DSM-IV-TR is the revised 4th edition 2000. 1. Antisocial Personality Disorder – It is more common in men than in women. – The person disregard social rules and obligations, is irritable and aggressive, acts impulsively, lack guilt, and fails to learn from experience. 2. Avoidant Personality Disorder – Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. 23  – Strongly associated with anxiety disorder, and may also be associated with actual or felt rejection. 3. Borderline Personality Disorder – Instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity. – Thought to lie on the borderline between neurotic (anxiety) disorders and psychotic disorders. 4. Dependent Personality Disorder – Submissive and clinging behavior related to an excessive need to be taken care of. 5. Histrionic Personality Disorder – Excessive emotionality and attention seeking. 6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder – Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. 7. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder/Anankastic PD – Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. 8. Paranoid Personality Disorder – Distress and suspiciousness such that others’ motives are interpreted as malevolent. 9. Schizoid Personality Disorder – Detachment from social relationship and a restricted range of emotional expression. 10. Schizotypal Personality Disorder – Acute discomfort to close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentricities of behavior. Traits of Normality 1. Appropriate perception of reality – Normal individuals are fairly realistic in appraising their reactions and capabilities and in interpreting what is going on in the world around them. – They do not consistently misperceive what others say and do, and they do not consistently overrate their abilities and tackle more than they can accomplish. – They do not underestimate their abilities and shy away from difficult tasks. 2. Ability to exercise voluntary control over behavior – Feel fairly confident about their ability to control their behavior. – Occasionally, they may act impulsively, but are able to restrain their sexual and aggressive urges when necessary. – May fail to conform to social norms, but in such instances their decisions are voluntary rather than the result of uncontrollable impulses. 3. Self-esteem and acceptance – Well-adjusted people have some appreciation of their own worth and feel accepted by those around them. – They are comfortable with other people and are able to react spontaneously in social situations. – They do not feel obligated to completely subjugate their opinions to those of the group. – Feelings of worthiness, alienation, and lack of acceptance are prevalent among individuals who are diagnosed as abnormal. 4. Ability to form affectionate relationships – Normal individuals are able to form close and satisfying relationships with other people. – They are sensitive to the feelings of others and do not make excessive demands on others to gratify their own needs. – Often, mentally disturbed people are so concerned with protecting their own security that they become extremely self-centered. – Preoccupied with their own feelings and strivings, they seek affection but are unable to reciprocate. – Sometimes they fear intimacy because their past relationships have been destructive. 5. Productivity – Well-adjusted people are able to channel their abilities into productive activity. – Enthusiastic about life; do not need to drive themselves to meet the demands of the day. – Chronic lack of energy and excessive susceptibility to fatigue are often symptoms of psychological tension resulting from unsolved problems. 24  HBSE (Human Behavior and Social Environment) TERMS Accommodation The act of compromising, reconciling, adjusting and adapting to competition and conflict. Adaptation A change in the individual allowing him to cope with the demands of the environment. Adaptive Behavior The individual’s manner or act of making appropriate or suitable responses to demands of his environment. Adjustment To fit one’s circumstances as when a person establishes a harmonious relationship with the physical and social environment e.g. (he gets along with a new group in which he finds himself. Adolescence In human beings it is the period from puberty to maturity, roughly the early teens to the early twenties. It is usually characterized by a crisis in identity as when a young man wants to not like an adult and yet enjoy the privileges of a young child. Ageism The systematic stereotyping of and indiscrimination against people because they are old; they are regarded as senile, rigid in thought and manner, old fashioned in morality and skills. Aggression Behavior intended to treat another person through hostile means. Alienation The feelings of being isolated from the general community and from reference persons ( a recovered mental patient may feel alienated from his family). Altruism Concern for the welfare of others in contrast to consecration of oneself. Am bisexual Processing traits belonging to both sexes. Anomie The disorganization of social and general value during times of catastrophic stress. Anxiety An unpleasant emotion similar to fear marked by a vague feeling that something unpleasant is going to occur in the future. Apathy A withdrawal from emotional threat usually as a consequence of frustration by retreating into a position of not caring. Sometimes, it is used as a defense mechanism to avoid being emotionally or psychologically hurt. Asexual Sexless, without sex or organs. Asocial Without social or communal values. Community An aggregation of individuals, and families, settled in a fairly compact and contiguous area with a significant element of common life as shown by values, manners, customs and traditions and modes of speech. Community The methods, steps, manner by which a community resolves its problems Processes and meets its needs. Competition Rivalry of the same goals. Conflict Disagreement of the two opposite sides on the same issue. It is also a type of stress produced when a person is motivated by two or more needs in such a fashion that the satisfaction of one may mean dissatisfaction of another need, or the satisfaction of one need is believed to involve unpleasant consequences. Conformity A tendency to allow one’s behavior to be influenced by prevailing attitudes and opinions. Contagion The spread of behavior patterns through a social group as a consequence of suggestion. Cope To contend with, strive or overcome difficulties presently encountered in the environment for the purpose of an accomplishing something. Crisis theory The concept that a person upset by crisis almost immediately tries to recover and operate on equilibrium. Defense An adjustment made, often unconsciously, either through action or the Mechanism avoidance in order to escape recognition by oneself of personal qualities or motives that might lower self-esteem or heighten anxiety. 25 Developmental Skills, levels of achievement and social adjustment which are considered tasks important at certain ages for the successful adjustment of the individual. Deviant Behavior which does not conform to the prevailing standards for acceptable behavior; homosexuality. Dull-Normal A category for persons whose I.Q’s are between 70 and 90. Ego According to Sigmund Freud, that part of the mind which is the individuals perception of himself Egotism To be concerned with only oneself and one’s own interest in mind. Ego Psychology The assumption that it is the ego which controls behavior as it can adjust behavior to a given situation or any moment. Emotional A mental disorder in which chronic, inappropriate emotional reactions Disorder predominate. Emotional The acting out of emotional problems of others through behavioral Disturbance disorders, usually characterized by impulsiveness, and assaultiveness. Environmental A strategy used to bring about a change in the client’s environment to Manipulation correct or improve his situation in order to reduce the strain and the pressure. E.g. taking a battered child away from home and putting him in an institution until the home situation improves. Existentialism A philosophy that is primarily concerned with man’s existence, his situation in the world, his freedom to choose his goals and projects, and the meaning of his life. It emphasizes that man is responsible for his own existence and that subjective experience is sufficient criterion of truth. Family A disturbed or non-harmonious functioning of the family, or temporary Disorganization disruption of the marriage relations accessioned by conflicts or tensions between husband and wife. Outward manifestations are: chronic failure to support, physical violence, frequent and angry quarreling, consistent unfaithfulness, diversion, etc. Fixation Arrested developments as when the person fails to pass beyond one of the earliest stages or change the object of attachment; e.g. a male child fixates on the mother even when he is already an adult. Group Contagion The rapid spread of emotional reactions or behavior patterns t