Summary MMGO Exam - Management of Human Behavior in Organisations (Non IE) PDF

lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Summary MMGO for exam - Samenvatting Management van menselijk gedrag in organisaties (Non IE) Management van menselijk gedrag in organisaties (Non IE) (Technische Universiteit Eindhoven) Scannen om te openen op Studeersnel Studeersnel wordt niet gesponsord of ondersteund door een hogeschool of universiteit Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 MMGO Summary Chapter 1 What is organizational behavior? The importance of interpersonal skills An understanding of human behavior plays a very important role in determining a manager’s effectiveness, and required courses on people skills have been added to many curricula. Positive social relationships also were associated with lower stress at work and lower intentions to quit  managers with good interpersonal skills are likely to make the workplace more pleasant, and research indicates that employees who know how to relate to their managers well with supportive dialogue and proactivity will find their ideas are endorsed more often, further improving workplace satisfaction Creating a pleasant workplace also appears to make good economic sense  companies with reputations as good places to work have been found to generate superior financial performance Managers can’t succeed on their technical skills alone; good people skills are also required What managers do o Managers: individual who achieves goals through other people o Organization: consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals Management functions Four management functions 1. Planning: process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy and developing plans to coordinate activities 2. Organizing: determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do the, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom and where decisions are to be made 3. Leading: function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels and resolving conflicts 4. Controlling: monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Management roles Mintzberg’s managerial roles Interpers o Figurehead: symbolic head; required to perform a number of onal routine duties of a legal or social nature o Leader: responsible for the motivation and direction of employees o Liaison: maintains a network of outside contacts who provide favours and information Informati o Monitor: receives a wide variety of information; serves as onal nerve center of internal and external information of the organization o Disseminator: transmits information received from outsiders or from other employees to members of the organization o Spokesperson: transmits information to outsiders on organization’s plans, policies, actions and results; serves as expert on organization’s industry Decisiona o Entrepreneur: searches organization and its environment for l opportunities and initiates projects to bring about change o Disturbance handler: responsible for corrective action when organization faces important, unexpected disturbance o Resource allocator: makes or approves significant organizational decisions o Negotiator: responsible for representing the organization at major negotiations Management skills There are a number of skills that differentiate effective from ineffective managers Technical skills o Technical skills: ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job Human skills o Human skills: ability to work with, understand and motivate other people, both individually and in groups Many people are technically proficient but poor listeners, unable to understand the needs of others, or weak at managing conflicts. Because managers get things done through other people, they must have good human skills Conceptual skills o Conceptual: mental ability to analyse and diagnose complex situations skills After they have selected a course of action, managers must be able to organize a plan of action and then execute it. The ability to integrate new ideas with existing Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 processes and innovate on the job are also crucial conceptual skills for today’s managers Effective versus successful managerial activities The most effective managers in their job are not definitely the ones who are promoted the fastest Four managerial activities 1. Traditional management: decision making, planning and controlling 2. Communication: exchanging routine information and processing paperwork 3. Human resource management: motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training 4. Networking: : socializing, politicking and interacting with outsiders o Successful managers: defined in the speed of promotion within their organization - networking makes largest relative contribution - human resource management makes least relative contribution o Effective managers: defined in terms of the quantity and quality of their performance and the satisfaction and commitment of their employees - Communication makes largest relative contribution - Networking makes least relative contribution A review of the manager’s job Managers need to develop their people skills if they’re going to be effective and successful Enter organizational behavior o Organizational: field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and Behaviour (OB) structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness It studies 3 determinants of behavior in organizations: 1. Individuals 2. Groups 3. Structure OB applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure on behavior in order to make organizations work more effectively Core topics: o Motivation Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 o Leader behavior and power o Interpersonal communication o Group structure and processes o Attitude development and perception o Change processes o Conflict and negotiation o Work design Complementing intuition with systematic study Underlying the systematic approach is the belief that behavior is not random  there are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behavior of all individuals that can be identified and then modified to reflect individual differences Fundamental consistencies are important because they allow predictability o Systematic: looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects and study drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence Complementing approach to systematic study: o Evidence-based: basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence management (EBM) Systematic study and EBM add to intuition o Intuition: gut feeling not necessarily supported by research If you make all decisions with intuition or gut instinct, you’re likely working with incomplete information  people tend to overestimate the accuracy of what they think they know Big data Big data, extensive use of statistical compilation and analysis, has been applied to many areas of business, increasingly it is applied to making effective decisions and managing human resources Persistent and predictive statistics are needed Persistent: giving relatively constant outcomes over time Predictive: showing steady causality between certain inputs and outcomes Use of big data for managerial practices is a relatively new area but one that holds an convincing promise A manager who uses data to define objectives, develop theories of causality and test those theories can find which employee activities are relevant to the objectives Don’t throw away intuition and don’t only rely on research Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 The promise of OB: Use evidence as much as possible to inform your intuition and experience. Disciplines that contribute to the OB field OB is built on contributions form a number of behavioural disciplines o Psychology: science that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals o Social: area of psychology that blends concepts form psychology and sociology and psychology focuses on the influence of people on one another o Sociology: study of people in relation to their social environment or culture o Anthropology: study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities Behavioural Contribution Unit of analysis Output science Psychology Learning Individual Study of Motivation organizational Personality behaviour Emotions Perception Training Leadership effectiveness Job satisfaction Individual decision making Performance appraisal Attitude measurement Employee selection Work design Work stress Social Behavioural change Group psychology Attitude change Communication Group processes Group decision making Sociology Communication Group Power Conflict Intergroup behavior Formal organization theory Organization system Organizational technology Organizational change Organizational culture Anthropology Comparative values Group Comparative attitudes Cross-cultural analysis Organizational culture Organization system Organizational environment Power Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 There are few absolutes in OB OB concepts must reflect situational, or contingency, conditions o Contingency: situational factors; variables that moderate the relationship between two or variables more other variables; x leads to y but only under conditions specified in z OB theories mirror the subject matter with which they deal and people are complex and complicated Challenges and opportunities for OB Changes in organizations: o Typical employee is getting older o More women are in the workplace o Corporate downsizing o Heavy use of temporary workers is serving the bonds of loyalty that historically tied many employees to their employers o Global competition is requiring employees to become more flexible + learn to cope with rapid change This resulted in new opportunities for workers OB offers solutions Responding to economic pressures Managing employees in good and hard times is difficult Good times  understanding how to reward, satisfy and retain employees is at a premium Bad times  issues like stress, decision making and coping come to the force Responding to globalization Organizations are no longer constrained by national borders  global village so the manager’s job is changing Increased foreign assignments As a manager you are increasingly likely to find yourself in a foreign assignment; transferred to your employer’s operating division or subsidiary in another country  have to manage a workforce that is likely to be very different in needs, aspirations and attitudes from those you are used to back home Working with people from different cultures Working with people born and raised in different cultures  different motivations and communication Need to understand how their culture, geography and religion have shaped them and how to adapt your management style to their differences Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labour Cost differentials have meant a migration of jobs from West to East In a global economy jobs tend to flow to places where lower costs provide business firms with a comparative advantage  often criticized by trade unions, politicians, local community leader Managers must deal with the difficult task of balancing the interests of their organization with their responsibilities to the communities in which they operate Adapting to differing cultural and regulatory norms Going global is difficult  to be successful managers need to know the cultural practices of the workforce in each country where they do business + cognizant of differences in regulations for their competitors in that country; laws will give national companies significant financial advantages over foreign subsidiaries Managing workforce diversity Workforce diversity is one of the most important challenge in organizations o Workforce: concept that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of diversity gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation and inclusion of other diverse groups Improving customer service OB can help managers increase the success of the interaction with an organization’s customers by showing how employee attitudes and behavior influence customer satisfaction  need to create customer-responsive culture Working in networked organizations Networked organizations allow people to communicate and work together even though they may be thousands of miles apart Motivation and leading people and making collaborative decisions online requires different techniques  as more employees do their jobs by linking to others through networks, managers must develop new skills; OB can help to gain insight Enhancing employee well-being at work Challenges well-being: 1. Many workers never get away from the virtual workplace - Communication technology allows many technical and professional employees to do their work at home - Also means many feel like they never really get a break 2. Organizations are asking employees to put in longer hours - Burnouts get more common 3. Heavy outside commitments - Single-parent households and dependent parents for example challenge balancing work and family responsibilities Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 - Employees want more time of due to this Creating a positive work environment o Positive: area of OB research that concerns how organizations develop human strength organizational foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential scholarship It studies reflected best-self asking employees to think about when they were at their personal best in order to understand how to exploit their strengths too often we focus on addressing our limitations and too rarely think about how to exploit our strengths POS does not deny the value of negative (critical feedback) it challenges researchers to look at OB through a new lens and pushes organizations to exploit employees’ strengths rather than dwell on their limitations Improving ethical behavior o Ethical: situations in which individuals are required to define right and wrong conduct dilemmas and ethical choices Determining the ethically correct way to behave is especially difficult in a global economy because different cultures have different perspectives on certain ethical issues Managers must create an ethically healthy climate for his or her employees, where they can do their work productively with minimal ambiguity about right versus wrong behaviors Promoting strong ethical mission  encourage employees to behave with integrity and provide strong leadership can influence employee decisions to behave ethically Coming attractions: developing an OB model Model: abstraction of reality; simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon. It proposes three types of variables (inputs, processes an outcomes) at three levels of analysis (individual, group and organizational). From left to right (book blz. 22) Input: Variables that lead to processes Processes: Actions that individuals, groups and organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to certain outcomes Outcomes: Key factors that are affected by some other variables. Outcomes have three levels: Individual-level, group-level and organizational-level Individual level Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 o Attitudes: Evaluations employees make about objects, people or events o Stress: An unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response to environmental pressures o Task performance: The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks o Citizenship behaviour: Discretionary behaviour that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace (performance beyond expectations, for example: help others on your team) o Withdrawal behaviour: The set of actions employees take to separate themselves from the organization Group-level o Group cohesion: The extent to which members of a group support and validate one another while at work o Group functioning: The quantity and quality of a work group’s output Organization-level o Productivity: both efficiency (degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at an low cost) and effectiveness (degree to which an organization meets the needs of its clientele or customers o Organizational survival: Degree to which an organization is able to exist and grow over the long term Chapter 2 What is organizational behavior? There are two levels of diversity: o Surface-level diversity: Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but may activate certain stereotypes. o Deep-level diversity: Differences in values, personality and work preferences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better. Diversity presents many opportunities for organizations and should furthermore try to eliminate discrimination: The noting of a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination, which means making judgements about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their demographic group. (See table 2.1 blz 37). Discrimination often has negative consequences for employers, including reduced productivity and citizenship behavior. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Diversity is a broad term, and the phrase ‘’workplace diversity’’ can refer to any characteristic that makes people different from one another. Biographical characteristics are personal characteristics such as age, gender, race and length of tenure that are representative of surface-level diversity o Age: ‘’Research find that age and job task performance are unrelated and that older workers are more likely to engage in citizenship behavior and it can be concluded that job satisfaction tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years’’ o Gender: ‘’no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills, learning ability etc. However female students are prone to accept occupational stereotypes and often lack of fit’’ o Race and ethnicity: ‘’Most research shows that members of racial and ethnic minorities report higher levels of discrimination in workplace. Furthermore there is evidence that there is a tendency for individuals to favor colleagues of their own race’’. o Disability: ‘’On the one hand a review suggests workers with disabilities receive higher performance evaluations. However, this same review found that despite their higher performance, individuals with disabilities tend to encounter lower performance expectations and are less likely to be hired. Although there is still much discrimination in this domain’’’ o Tenure: ‘’seniority on job performance the less absent someone is and the less likely he or she is to quit. Moreover tenure at an employee’s previous job is a powerful predictor of that employee’s future’’ o Religion: ‘’workers who are the victims of religious discrimination have higher levels of health problems, absence and turnover’’ o Cultural identity: ‘’A company seeking to be sensitive to the cultural identities of its employees should look beyond accommodating its majority groups and instead create as much of an individualized approach to practices and norms as possible’’ Ability: An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job Intellectual abilities: The capacity to do mental activities- thinking, reasoning and problem solving (table 2.2 blz. 45  Dimensions of intellectual ability ) The dimensions of intellectual ability are positively correlated amongst each other. Researchers recognize a general factor of intelligence called the general mental ability (GMA), suggested by the positive correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions. Physical abilities: The capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength and similar characteristics. Research on hundreds of jobs has identified nine basic abilities needed in the performance of physical tasks. Diversity management: The process and programs by which managers make everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others.  Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 one method is to target recruiting messages to specific demographic groups underrepresented in the workforce. In some cases diversity in traits can hurt team performance, whereas in others it can facilitate it. If leaders of groups of diverse individuals can show how members have a common interest in the group’s success, the group overall will be more successful. Researchers suggest that diversity experiences are more likely to lead to positive adaptation for all parties if: 1. The diversity experience undermines stereotypical attitudes 2. The perceiver is motivated and able to consider a new perspective on others 3. The perceiver engages in stereotype suppression and generative thought in response to the diversity experience 4. The positive experience of stereotype undermining is repeated frequently Chapter 3 Attitudes and job satisfaction Attitudes: Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people or events Attitudes have 3 components which are very closely related o Cognitive component: The opinion or belief segment of an attitude o Affective component: The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude o Behavioral component: An intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something Cognitive dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes; people sometimes change what they say so it doesn’t contradict what they do, they seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. Festinger proposes that the desire to reduce dissonance depends on 1. The importance of the elements creating it (more importance  more desire) 2. The degree of influence the individual believes he has over the elements (more influence individual  more desire) 3. Rewards of dissonance (high rewards tent to reduce the tension inherent (van nature) in the dissonance) The most powerful moderators of the attitudes-behavior relationship are: Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 o Its correspondence to behavior (more correspondence  stronger relationship) o Its accessibility (more accessible  stronger relationship) o Importance of the attitude (more important  stronger relationship) o The existence of social pressures (social pressure can cause discrepancies between attitudes and behavior) o Direct experience with the attitude (more direct experience  stronger relationship) Job attitudes: 1. Job satisfaction: A positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics 2. Job involvement: The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it and considers performance important to self- worth. Related to psychological empowerment: Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy in their work. 3. Organizational commitment: The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Three separate dimensions to organizational commitment: o Affective commitment: emotional attachment to organization and belief in its values o Continuance commitment: perceived economic value remaining with an organization compared to leaving it o Normative commitment: obligation to remain with organization for moral or ethical reasons Organizational commitment makes place for Occupational commitment Perceived organizational support: The degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. ‘’Employees with strong POS perceptions have been found more likely to have higher levels of organizational citizenship behaviors, lower levels of tardiness and better customer service. Employee engagement: An individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work he or she does. Measuring job satisfaction 1. Single global rating: A response to one question, such as ‘’All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job’’ Respondents circle a number Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 between 1 and 5 that corresponds to answers from ‘’highly satisfied’’ to ‘’highly dissatisfied’’. NOT time-consuming! 2. Summation score made up of a number of job facets: Respondents rate typical elements like the nature of the work, supervision, present pay etc. on a standardized scale and researchers add the ratings to create an overall job satisfaction score. Research has shown that people who have positive core self-evaluations – who believe in their inner worth and basic competence – are more satisfied with their jobs than those with negative core self – evaluations. Consequence responses of dissatisfaction: o Exit: directing behavior towards leaving the organization, including looking for a new position as well as resigning o Voice: actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors and undertaking some forms of union activity. o Loyalty: passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up for the organization in the face of external criticism and trusting the organization and its management to ‘’do the right thing’’. o Neglect: passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort and increased error rate. Job satisfaction is positively correlated with job performance and customer satisfaction and moderately correlated with organizational citizenship behavior. Furthermore there is a negative relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism and between job satisfaction and turnover. Chapter 4 Personality and values Personality: The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others Measuring personality o Self-report surveys: Work well and are well constructed, although respondents might lie or practice impression management to create a good impression o Observer-ratings surveys: An independent assessment of personality in which a co-worker or another observer does the rating (sometimes with the subject’s knowledge and sometimes not). Use both observer ratings and self-report ratings of personality when making important employment decisions. Heredity: Factors determined at conception, one’s biological, physiological and inherent psychological makeup. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 The debate whether an individual’s personality is a result of heredity or of environment is still going strong Personality traits: Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI): A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. On the basis of their answers , individuals are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F) and judging or perceiving (J or P): o Extroverted individuals are outgoing sociable and assertive while introverts are quiet and shy o Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the ‘’big picture’’ o Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems while feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions o Judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous For example Introverted/Intuitive/Thinking/Judging people is one of the 16 personality’s Big Five model: A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions. The big five factors are: o Extroversion: captures one’s comfort level with relationships o Agreeableness: refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others o Conscientiousness: measure of reliability o Emotional stability: taps a person’s ability to withstand stress o Openness to experience: addresses one’s range of interests and fascination with novelty See Figure 4.1 blz. 88  Model of how Big Five traits influence OB criteria Other more specific, personality attributes that have been found to be powerful predictors of behavior in organizations are: Core self-evaluation, Machiavellianism, narcissism, self-monitoring, propensity for risk taking and the type A and proactive personalities and other-orientation. Core self-evaluation: The degree to which an individual likes or dislikes himself or herself, whether the person sees himself or herself as capable and effective, and whether the person feels in control of his or her environment or powerless over the environment: ‘’People with positive core self-evaluations perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals and persist longer at attempting to reach these goals. Machiavellianism: The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means. Machs flourish when Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly, when the situation has a minimal number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation; and when emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low Machs. Narcissism: The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self- importance, require excessive admiration and have a sense of entitlement. Most evidence suggests that narcissism is undesirable. ‘’A study found that while narcissists thought they were better leaders than their colleagues, their supervisors actually rated them as worse leaders’’. Self- monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. ‘’High self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others and are more capable of conforming than are low self-monitors’’. Risk taking: ‘’managers in large organizations may actually be more willing to take risks than entrepreneurs. Type A personality: Aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time and, if necessary, against the opposing efforts of other things or other people. Type B personality: Type B’s are rarely harried by the desire to obtain a widely increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time. Type B’s never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience Type A’s do better in job interviews because they are more likely to be judged as having desirable traits such as high drive, competence, aggressiveness and success motivation. Proactive personality: People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action and persevere until meaningful change occurs. Situation-strength theory: A theory indicating that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation. Researchers have analyzed situation strength in organizations in terms of four elements: 1. Clarity: degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear. 2. Consistency: the extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities are compatible with one another 3. Constraints: the extent to which individuals’ freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control 4. Consequences: the degree to which decisions or actions have important implications for organization or its members, clients, supplies, and so on. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 ´´Creating strong rules to govern complex, interrelated and culturally diverse systems might be not only difficult but unwise, because it can be dull and demotivating and many prefer having some freedom to decide how to do our work and be creative. So managers need to find the appropriate balance´´ Trait activation theory: A theory that predicts that some situations events or interventions ‘activate’ a trait more than others ‘’Personality affects work behaviour and the situation affects work behaviour, but when the situation is right, the power of personality to predict behaviour is even higher’’ Values: Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Values contain a judgemental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good or desirable and they have two attributes: o Content: says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important o Intensity: specifies how important it is ‘’Values tend to be relatively stable and enduring’’ and ‘’Values are important to the study of OB because they lay the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions’’ Value system: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survery (RVS) for classifying values that consists of two sets: o Terminal values: Desirable end-states of existence: the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime o Instrumental values: Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values There differences in values depending on gender, age, education and occupation. (See table 4.2  Mean value ranking of executives, union members and activists) The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics is best articulated in John Holland’s Personality-job fit theory: A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover is lower when personality and occupation are in agreement (see Table 4.3  personality’s and congruent occupations). For example: Social individuals should be in social jobs. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 ‘’The person-organization fit essentially argues that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities’’ Understanding the differences of values among cultures is done Geert Hofstede. According to him employees vary on five value dimensions of national culture: o Power distance: describes the degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally (high power rating  large inequalities) o Individualism versus collectivism o Masculinity versus femininity: Masculinity is the degree to which the culture favors traditional masculine roles such as achievement, power and control, as opposed to viewing men and women as equals. While femininity is a national culture attribute that has little differentiation between male and female roles. So high masculinity rating indicates culture has separate roles for men and women, with men dominating and high femininity means the culture sees little differentiation between male and female roles o Uncertainty avoidance: The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations defines their uncertainty avoidance o Long-term versus short-term orientation People with long-term orientation look to the future and value thrift, persistence and tradition while people with short-term orientation value the here and now. See table 4.4  Hofstede’s cultural values by nation ‘’We should be cautious about assuming all people fro a country have the same values’’ There now also exist a GLOBE framework for assessing cultures. The only difference with Hofstede is that some other dimensions are added. Chapter 5 ‘Perception, individual decision making and creativity’ Perception and person perception Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Perception Individuals interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. People’s behaviour based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Attribution theory When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. Internally: problem caused by person itself. Late for work, because of partying all night. Externally: Problem caused by external factors. Late for work because of traffic jam, due to accident. Determination depends on (on the working floor): - Distinctiveness: person shows different behaviour in situations. Is the same person who is late for work also late for meetings? If this is the case, you would judge internal. - Consensus: A person’s response is the same as others in the same situation. Employees who took the same route were also late. If this is the case, you would judge external. - Consistency: A person responds in the same way over time. Errors and biases in attributions: - Fundamental attribution error/correspondence bias: tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgements. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 - Self-serving bias: tendency for individuals to attribute their own success to internal factors, while putting blame for failures on external factors. Shortcuts in judging others: - Selective perception: tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of own interests, background and experience. - Halo effect: drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of one characteristic. - Contrasts effects: evaluate someone or something by comparing it with other people/things who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. - Stereotyping: place someone to a group on the basis of one perception you’ve made. Pygmalion effect (self-fulfilling prophecy): application of shortcuts in organizations: - effect that individual’s behaviour is determined by other people’s expectations. If a manager expects big performances from its staff, they’re not likely to let the manager down. Rational decision making model: describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. Bounded rationality: extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexities. → Simplified system. Intuitive decision making: An unconscious process created out of distilled experience. Relying on intuition. Common biases and errors in decision making: - Overconfidence bias: believing too much in our own decision competencies. - Anchoring bias: fiscating on early, first received information. - Confirmation bias: using only the facts that support our decision. - Availability bias: using information that is most readily at hand and make judgements about that. Like people fear flying more as driving. Media plays more attention to aircraft accidents than to car crashes. - Escalation of commitment: an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. Consider a friend who is dating his girlfriend for several years now. He admits that things aren’t going well, but he is still going to marry her. “I have a lot invested in this relationship”. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 - Randomness error: the tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events. → Superstition. - Risk aversion: the tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff. - Hindsight bias: the tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome. Perhaps after Germany won the 2014 WC your response was “I told you so!”. The hindsight bias reduces our ability to learn from the past. Influences on decision making: individual differences and organizational constraints Individual: - Personality - Gender - Mental ability - Cultural differences Organizational: - Performance evaluation - Reward systems - Formal regulations - System-imposed time constraints - Historical precedents Ethics in decision making: three ethical decision criteria: - Utilitarian criterion: Utilitarianism: A system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. This process can result in the ignorance of the rights of some individuals, especially those with minority representation in the organisation. - Focus on rights. Right to privacy, to free speech and to due process. This criterion protects whistleblowers when they reveal unethical practices by their organization. - Focus on justice: equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Union members typically favour this view. Researchers are turning to behavioural ethics: Analysing how people actually behave when confronted to ethical dilemmas. Research tells us that individuals do not always follow ethical standards promulgated by their organizations and we sometimes violate our own standards. Creativity, creative decision making and innovation in organizations: A decision maker needs creativity, the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Three-stage model of creativity in organizations: - the core is creative behaviour. - which has causes: predictors of creative behaviour. - and effects: outcomes of creative behaviour. Creative environment: - Many people believe that diversity will increase team creativity..? - Diverse teams can be more creative, but only under certain conditions. For example, the team’s leader needs to be inspirational and instills members with confidence. Creative outcomes: - Creative behaviour does not always produce a creative or innovative outcome. Management might reject a creative solution. One study showed that most people have a bias against accepting creative ideas because ideas create uncertainty. Chapter 6 ‘Motivation concepts’ Motivating employees is one the most important, and one of the most challenging, aspects of management. Motivation; the process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. - High intensity is unlikely to lead to favourable job-performance outcomes unless the effort is channelled in a direction that benefits the organisation. - Persistence, how long a person can maintain its effort. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Early theories of motivation Hierarchy of needs theory Within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs. Low order needs (satisfied externally): - Physiological. bodily needs: hunger, thirst, sex, shelter. - Safety. Security and protection of physical and emotional harm. High order needs (satisfied internally, within in the person): - Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance. - Esteem. Internal factors: autonomy, achievement, self-respect. - Self-actualization. Drive to become what one is capable of becoming: growth, self-fulfilment. Theory X and Y - Theory X: Managers assume that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility and must be coerced to perform. For Theory Y exactly the opposite. (OB studies need to have empirical study before we can accept them. However, empirical support is lacking for Theory X/Y and Hierarchy of Needs) Two-factor Theory, by Herzberg - Intrinsic factors (achievement, recognition) related to job satisfaction. - Extrinsic factors (company policies, payment) associated with dissatisfaction. - job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not determined by the same factors. - Hygiene factors (company policy, salary, supervision, etc): When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied. Some kind of basic conditions. - However, two-factor has not been well supported in the literature and it is has been criticised. McClelland’s theory of needs A theory which states that achievement, power and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation. - Need for Achievement: drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Researchers and McClelland focused most on this need. - Need for Power: The need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise - Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Contemporary theories of motivation These studies are called ‘contemporary’ not because they were all developed recently but because they represent the current state of thinking in explaining employee motivation. Self-determination theory People prefer to have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation. In OB there is much focus on the cognitive evaluation theory, which hypothesizes that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task. To broaden the context there is a theory called self-concordance. This theory considers how strongly peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. Conclusion; Employees who feel what they do is within their control and a result of free choice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers. Job engagement The investment of employee’s physical, cognitive and emotional energies into job performance. Critics to high engagement: stress, conflict between work and family. Goal-setting theory A theory which says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. More to the point, we can say that specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. Goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined no to lower or abandon it. Criticism: people might be too focused on specific outcomes and ignore changing conditions. Research has found that people differ in pursuing their goals. Two categories: - Promotion focus: striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment. - Prevention focus: striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations. Implementing goal-setting → Management by objectives (MBO) → A programme that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Self-efficacy theory An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. It can create a positive spiral in which those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then, in turn, increase performance, which increases efficacy further. Self-efficacy complements with the goal-setting theory. Four ways self-efficacy can be increased: - Enactive mastery: Gaining relevant experience with the task or job. - Vicarious modelling: Becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the job. - Verbal persuasion: Someone convinces you that you have the skills to be successful. - Arousal: Arousal leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. Reinforcement theory A theory that says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. It’s the opposite of goal-setting theory. Reinforcement sees behaviour as being environmentally caused, where goal-setting proposes that individual’s purposes directs action. Equity theory A theory which says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. This theory was the input for the study of the Organized justice. An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace composed of distributive, procedural, informational and interpersonal justice. - distributive justice: concerned with outcomes; pay and recognition. - procedural justice: how outcomes are distributed; the fairness of this process. - informational justice: The degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions. - interpersonal justice: The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect. These types of justices mean a lot to employees. Expectancy theory A theory which says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Some critics say it has only limited use and is more valid where individuals clearly perceive effort- performance and performance-reward linkages. Because a few individuals do, the theory tends to be realistic. The presented theories are not all valid, only one is actually. But, many of the theories are complementary and together they describe the interrelationships of motivation. Chapter 7: Motivation: from concepts to applications Job design (=the way elements in a job are organized) can increase or decrease effort. The job characteristics model proposes that any job can be described in terms of the following job dimensions: (look at figure 7.1 for a better comprehension) 1.Skill variety (multitasked job) 2.Task identity (the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole piece of work) 3.Task significance (the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people) 4.Autonomy 5.Feedback (the degree to which an individual obtain direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance The JCM says that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results), that they personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness), which leads to motivation. Motivating potential score= (skill variety + task identity + task significance) /3 x autonomy x feedback A high score on MPS leads to motivation, performance and satisfaction. How can jobs be redesigned? - Job rotation: the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 - Job enrichment: the vertical expansion of jobs, which increases the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution and evaluation of the work - Job sharing: an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40- hour-a-week job - Teleworking: working from home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to the employer’s office. Employee involvement is a participative process that uses the input of employees and is intended to increase employee commitment to an organization’s success. So if employees are given more control over their work, they will become more motivated, committed and productive. Employee involvement differs per countries. Countries that have high power-distance (differences in authority ) tend to value employee involvement less. Two forms: -Participative management: a process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. -Representative participation: a system in which workers participate in organizational decision- making through a small group of representative employees. Both systems/processes effects are minimal. In terms of two-factor theory, employee involvement programmes could provide intrinsic motivation by increasing opportunities for growth, responsibility and involvement in the work itself. Pay motivates people. Management must make some strategic decisions regarding: -What to pay? Take into consideration internal equity (= the worth of the job to the organization) and external equity (the external competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to the pay elsewhere in the industry). Internal equity is the best pay system. Employees who believed that were receiving a competitive pay level had higher morale and were more productive. -How to pay? Variable-pay programme includes a pay plan that bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/ or organization measure of performance. Different types of variable-pay programmes include: 1.Piece-rate pay (= a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed). Not feasible to put to practice. 2.Merit-based pay (= a pay plain based on performance appraisal ratings) 3.Bonuses (=a play plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical data). Dividing rewards and bonuses into multiple categories makes people work harder. 4.Skill-based pay (=a pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do). Downside: paying for skills that aren’t meaningful, don’t address for performance, what if one assesses all skills? 5.Profit-sharing plans (=an organization’s wide programme that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability). Creates feeling of ownership within an employee. 6.Gainsharing (= a formula-based group incentive plan that uses improvements in group productivity from one period to another to determine the total amount of money allocated) 7. Employee stock ownership plan (=a company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their performance). Increases satisfaction and motivation. Studies generally support the idea that organizations with profit-sharing plans have higher levels of profitability, commitment Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 -Flexible benefits (=a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to their own needs and situation), three types are: 1.core-plus plans: a menu-like selection from which employees can select using benefit-credit. 2.flexible spending plan: expenses on health care, holiday trading and dental premiums. 3.modular plans: predesigned packages or modules of benefits specifying the needs for a certain group. -Intrinsic rewards: employee recognition programmes Important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition, and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. Chapter 8: Emotions and moods Emotions on the workplace haven’t been examined much in the past. This is because emotions were rarely viewed as constructive or contributing to performance. And because emotions weren’t appreciated and seen as an antithesis of rationality. Three terms that are closely intertwined and need differentiating are: Affect= a broad range of feelings that people experience. Affect can be either emotion or mood. Emotion= intense feeling that are directed at someone or something. Moods= feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. Look at figure 8.1 for more differences. There are dozens of emotions. René Descartes, identified six simple and primitive passions: wonder, love, hatred, desire, joy and sadness, and that all others or composition of these. Basic emotions studied by facial expressions is complex, as it may differ per culture and emotions aren’t always expressed. Six universal emotions are accepted by psychologists: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise. Ways to classify emotions are by use of positive affect and negative affect, depicted in figure 8.2. People think about events that created strong negative emotions five times as long as they do about events that created strong positive ones. Positive offset suggest the tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input. Emotions are critical to rational thinking. This is because emotions provide important information about how we understand the world around us. Another reason is related to evolutionary psychology (an area of inquiry which argues that we must experience the emotions we do because they serve a purpose) Sources of emotions and moods: - Personality (affect intensity = individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions) - Time of the day. Effects of positive affect peak in the late morning and then remain at that level until early evening. Negative affect increases over the course of the day. - Day of the week. People are in their best moods on the weekends. - Weather. Weather has little effect on mood. Illusory correlation (=the tendency of people to associate two events when in reality there is not connection), explains why people tend to think nice weather improves their mood. - Stress. Negatively affects our mood. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 - Social activities. Positive moods seek out social interactions and social interactions cause people to be in good moods. Physical activities are more correlated with positive moods than are formal ones. - Sleep. Makes it difficult to control emotion, less alert and irritable. - Exercise. Enhances positive mood. - Age. As we get older, we experience fewer negative emotions, bad moods fade quicker, and positive moods last longer. - Gender. Women are more emotionally expressive than men are. Men report more feelings of power than women. Jobs require emotional labour (= a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work). The true challenge arises when employees have to project one emotion whole feeling another. This is emotional dissonance (inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project). Emotions can be divided into felt emotions (an individual’s actual emotion) and displayed emotion (emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job). Surface acting happens is hiding inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. Deep acting, however, is trying to modify one’s true feeling based on display rules. Surface acting deals with displayed emotion, deep acting with felt emotions. Affective events theory is a model which suggests that workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviours (figure 8.4). Emotions provide valuable insights into how workplace hassles and uplifting events influence employee performance and satisfaction. Second, employees and managers shouldn’t ignore emotions or the events that cause them, even when they appear minor, because they accumulate. Emotional intelligence is the ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information (figure 8.5 for full comprehension). EI has been a controversial concept, with supporters and detractors. Arguments in favour: - Intuitive appeal: intuition suggest people who can detect emotion in others, control their own emotions and handle social interactions well. - EI predicts criteria that matter: positively correlated with job performance - EI is biologically based Arguments against: - EI researchers do not agree on definitions - EI can’t be measured: validity of measurements is questionable. - EI is nothing but personality with a different label: EI is a construct and nothing more than a combination of cognitive intelligence, conscientiousness and neuroticism. Emotional regulation is a strong predictor of task performance. Techniques include acknowledging rather than surpressing, venting. If the listener however doesn’t respond, the venter actually feels worse. Sympathy is thus important. People with the personality trait ‘neuroticism’, have more trouble regulating emotions. People with low self-esteem are less likely to try to improve their sad moods. OB Applications of emotions and moods: Selection: EI should be used in the hiring process Decision making: Positive moods and emotions seem to help decision making Creativity: Positive moods and emotions boosts creativity. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Motivation: Feedback and positive moods leads to motivation. Leadership: Effective leaders rely on emotional appeals to help convey their message. Negotiation: When a negotiator feigns anger, he or she has an advantage over the opponent, because anger is showed when the negotiator has done all that they can, so the opponent gives in. Emotions impair negotiation. Customer service: an effect often occurring within customer service is emotional contagion (=the process by which peoples’ emotions are caused by the emotions of others.) It can be useful to an organization. Deviant workplace behaviours: Evidence suggest people that who feel negative emotions are more likely than others to engage in short-term deviant behaviour. Safety and injury at work: people with bad moods are more prone to injury How manager can influence moods? Leader are seen as more effective when they share positive emotions, and followers are more creative in a positive emotional environment Chapter 9: Foundations of group behaviour We define a group as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular goals. A formal group is one that is designated by an organization’s structure. In contrast, informal groups come together natural without structure. Social identity theory is a perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of a group. It proposes people to have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group, because their self-esteem gets tied to the group’s performance. Social identities can even lead people to experience pleasure as a result of seeing another group suffer (also called schadenfreude), or regarding members of your own group to be better than people outside of the group (in-group favouritism). When is a social identity developed? Characteristics that make it important: -Similarity. -Distinctiveness. People are more likely to notice identities that show how they are different from other groups. -Status. People are likely to link their self-esteem with a high-status groups. -Uncertainty reduction. Social identity helps some people understand who they are and how they fit into the world. Groups generally pass through a predictable sequence in their evolution. (five-stage model) Take note that in practice this sequence isn’t that linear. 1.Forming stage. Much uncertainty. Members look for structure, purpose and leadership and test the waters. 2.Storming stage. Intragroup conflict. Members conflict over who will control the group, and there is resistance on the constraints imposed on the individual. A hierarchy and identity is set. 3. Norming stage. Expectations and group behavior is defined. Close relations and cohesiveness. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 4.Performing stage. Group is now fully functional. However for temporary groups, there is a 5. Adjourning stage. Concern with wrapping up activities and preparation for disbandment. For group that has deadlines and only exist for a very short time, go through the punctuated-equilibrium model, depicted in figure 9.2. Work groups have properties that shape the behavior of members and make it possible to explain a large portion of group and individual behavior. Property 1: roles. (= a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit) Role perception (=an individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation) Role expectation (=how others view a person should act in a given situation). In the workplace a role expectation exists (an unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from an employee and vice versa) Role conflict =(a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.) For example, work and family roles can come into conflict when the expectations of one clash with the expectations of another. Zimbardo’s prison experiment: students were assigned either role of guard or prisoner. It took little time for the students to accept their authority positions. Following social identity theory, the guards came to see the prisoners as a negative outgroup. The prisoners actually begin to believe this and act inferior. So, people can act very different from their inherent personality to satisfy a role. Property 2: norms (= acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members.) Norms can cover virtually any aspect of group behavior. The performance norm help provide members with cues to work hard, how to get the job done, what their level of output should be, what level of punctuality is appropriate. Other norms include, appearance norms (dress codes), social arrangement norms (with whom group members eat lunch, whether to form friendships on and off the job), and resource allocation norms (assignment of difficult jobs, distribution of pay or equipment. Hawthorne studies: started to research the relationship between the physical environment and productivity. 1. Differed the light intensity for an experimental group. Surprisingly, productivity rose even when the light was dropped. The productivity only decreased when the light intensity had been reduced to that of the moonlight. 2. Research done upon a group of telephone relay-collecting women showed that being researched made them feel special, and that this influenced their performance significantly. 3. Research with a wage incentive plan. Findings were that people do not maximize their output. Rather, their output becomes controlled by a group norm that determined output, and people conform to this norm for self-protection. The impact that group pressures for conformity can have on an individual member’s judgement and attitude was demonstrated in the now-classic studies by Asch. Asch established a group of 6 people, showing them two cards: one card with a line, and another card with three varying lines, with one being identical with the first card. Then, the exercise was to announce aloud which of the three lines matched Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 the line of the first card. First, all respondents gave the right answers. Next, respondents started to give wrong answers, and the unknowing respondent became insecure. Results obtained showed that 75% of the subjects gave at least one wrong answer to conform. Conclusion: there are group norms that press us towards conformity. Conformity to social norms is higher in collectivist cultures, but still is a powerful force in groups in individualist countries. People solely conform to the important groups, being reference groups (groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform). Deviant workplace behavior= voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Figure 9.1 shows typology of deviant workplace behavior. Property 3: status Status characteristics theory (status hierarchies are created within a group), determined by: 1. The power a person wields over others is associated with high status. 2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals is associated with high status. 3. An individual’s personal characteristics are associated with high status. High status members are given more freedom to deviate from group norms, more capable to resist conformity and may improve group performance. High status members tend to be more assertive. But status differences inhibit diversity of ideas and creativity, as lower status members tend to be less active participants. It is important for group members to believe the status hierarchy is equitable. Perceived inequity causes corrective behaviour. Affiliating with a stigmatized can damage a person’s reputation, but affiliating with a high-status person can contribute to a higher reputation. Property 4: size Size matters. Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks and individuals perform better in smaller groups. However, for groups engaged in problem-solving, larger groups score better. Social loafin is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. An experiment on rope puling showed: total group performance increases with group size, but more additions has diminishing returns on individual productivity. Explanations for this might be social loafing, but also dispersion of responsibility. Social loafing primarily exists within the West. Ways that prevent social loafing: set group goals, increase in- group competition, engage in peer evaluation, select members who have high motivation, create rewards on contributions. Property 5: cohesiveness (the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group). Cohesiveness is related to group productivity, if performance related norms are high (figure 9.4). What can you do to make a group cohesive? -Make the group smaller -Encourage agreement with group goals -increase the time members spend together -increase the status of the group and the difficulty of attaining membership -stimulate competition with other groups -give rewards to the group rather than to individual members -physcially isolate the group Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Property 6: diversity(= the extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, due to differences in opinions, values etc., but can also provide an opportunity to solve problems in unique ways, thus leading to productivity. One possible side effect in diverse teams is faultlines(=the perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups, based on individual differences, such as sex, race, age, work experience and education). It can be detrimental group functioning and performance, although when used on differences in skill, than it is possible to improve performance. Group versus the individuals- is group decision-making better than individual decision-making? Groups generate more complete information and knowledge. They offer more input, an increased diversity of views, and acceptance of a solution. However, group decision-making is time consuming and include conformity pressures in groups. Also it can be dominated by one or a few members, and a decision suffers from ambiguous responsibility. Groups are generally less efficient than individuals. In terms of accuracy, group decisions are generally more accurate than the decisions of the average individual in a group, and are more creative Two by-products of group decision making have received considerable amount of attention: Groupthink (= the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. Groupshift (=a change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make: the shift can be towards either conservatism or greater risk but is generally towards a more extreme version of the group’s original position) The most common form of group decision-making takes place in interacting groups. In these groups members interact face-to-face. Brainstorming (an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives) and the nominal group technique (a group decision-making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgements in a systematic but independent fashion) have been proposed to reduce the inherent problems in interacting groups. Brainstorming however, is sometimes ineffective because of ‘production blocking’, where thought processes and sharing of ideas are blocked because of everyone that is talking. The nominal group technique restricts discussion during the decision-making process. See figure 9.2 and guidelines on a better comprehension. Chapter 10: Understanding work teams Groups and teams are not the same thing. A work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. There is no collective work. A work team is a group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. There is a positive synergy. Low levels of virtuality in teams result in higher levels of information sharing, but high levels of virtuality hinder it. For virtual teams to be effective: 1. Trust should be established 2. Team progress is monitored closely and 3. The efforts and products of the team are publicized throughout the organization. As tasks become more complex, multiteam systems can be set up. A multiteam system is a collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal: a team of teams. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Look at figure 10.3 for explanation on the components that constitute team effectiveness. Team effectiveness = objective measures of the team’s productivity, managers’ rating of the team performance and aggregate measures of member satisfaction. What factors determine successful teams? 1.Adequate resources. 2.Leadership and structure. Teams that establish shared leadership by effectively delegating it are more effective than teams with a traditional single-leader structure. 3. Climate of trust 4. Performance evaluation and reward systems How should the composition of a team be? 1. Ability of members. Although the performance of a team is not merely the summation of one’s individual abilities, it does set parameters on effectiveness and aims. High-ability teams score better, are more adapted to change. But a less-intelligent leader could neutralize this effect. 2. Personality of members. Teams that rate high one mean levels of conscientiousness and openness tend to perform better, and a minimum level of agreeableness. 3. Allocation of roles. Successful teams have different people with different roles, mentioned in figure 10.4 4. Diversity of members. (organizational demography= the degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute). No striking evidence on whether diverse teams are considered to be a contribution to team productivity. 5. Size of teams. Keeping teams small will improve effectiveness (around 5-10 persons) 6. Member preferences. High-performing teams are likely to be composed of people who prefer working as part of a group. Team process In order to prevent social loafing and produce positive synergy, the team process is important. (aka het process wat bij erik ten hag niet werkte). This is done as follows: 1.Common plan and purpose. Overall shared perspectives on team purposes enhances productivity. Effective teams show reflexivity (= reflection and adjustment on purpose and plan when necessary) 2. Specific goals. 3. Team efficacy (confidence). 4. Mental models. (= organized mental representations of the key elements within a team’s environment that team members share. More similarity in a mental model leads to better performance. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 5. Conflict levels. Conflict isn’t necessarily bad for a team’s effectiveness, and sometimes is even a good thing. However, relational conflict is always dysfunctional. 6. Social loafing. By making members accountable, they work better How to turn an individual into a team player? 1.Selection: hiring team players 2.Training: creating team players 3.Rewarding: providing incentives to be a good team player Take note: the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs. How to know? 1. Complexity of the work. Can it also be done by one person? 2. Does it create a common purpose? 3. Are the members interdependent? Teams are like football teams where every player complements one another. Chapter 11: Communication “Communication must include both the transfer and the understanding of meaning” Functions of communication: - Controlling behavior of members in an organization - Fostering motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing and how they can improve their performance - Emotional expression of feelings, fulfilment of social needs - Provides the information which is needed to make decisions Process of communication: 1. The sender: determines what message he wants to send 2. Encoding message: The sender encodes the thought 3. The message: the message can then be sent 4. The channel: This message has to be sent through a channel, which can be either formal or informal Formal channels generally follow the authority chain within an organization, while personal and social messages are mostly sent through informal channels 5. The receiver: the one who receives the message 6. Decoding: The message has to be decoded in order to change it into an understandable form for the receiver Other variables: 7. Noise: communication barriers like perceptual problems, information overload or cultural differences Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 8. Feedback: the check on how successful the sender has been in transferring the message, and whether understanding by the receiver has been achieved Directions of communication: - Downward communication Used by managers to for example assign goals, provide instructions, etc. (Almost always in one way) It is of great importance that managers explain why a decision was made. The goal of communication is that it goes both ways: From managers to employees, and also from employees to managers (feedback on decisions, suggestions etc.) - Upward communication The communication from employees towards managers. Used to provide feedback, inform them on progress towards goals, relay current problems. Problem with upward communication is that it almost always is positive/confirming, as employees don’t want to risk their position by being too critical. - Lateral communication This type saves time (compared to only having vertical communication) and facilitates coordination. Risk in dysfunctionality when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, when bosses find actions have been taken without their knowledge. Formal small-group networks Three types of communication structures for formal communication within an organization: - Chain: communication follows the formal chain of command, from top to bottom - Wheel: one central figure acts as the conduit for all of the group’s communication (leadership role) - All-channel: permits all group members to actively communicate with each other (not one leadership role) Informal small-group structure (for informal communication): - Grapevine Rumours are being spread through this network: they emerge when situations are important to us, when there is ambiguity and under conditions that arouse anxiety. Practical suggestions for managers to limit impact of rumours: 1. Provide information 2. Explain actions and decisions 3. Refrain - respond to rumours in a calm, rational and respectful way 4. Maintain open communication channels - encourage employees to be open to you Modes of communication - Oral communication Advantages: speed and thus also fast feedback Disadvantage: when a massage has to be passed through a number of people, the is a risk of distortion (different interpretation etc.) Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 Examples; 1. Meetings 2. Videoconferencing (saves travel expenses and time) 3. Telephone (con: can be easily overlooked) - Written communication 1. Letters (creating lasting records) 2. PowerPoint (critiques: too impersonal, disengaging and frequently misused) 3. Email (downside: billions are lost because of processing unnecessary email communication by employees) 4. Instant messaging (Technology where you have to be online to receive a message) 5. Text messaging (WhatsApp) 6. Social media 7. Blogs 8. Others (Flickr, YouTube etc.) - Nonverbal communication Includes body movements, intonation, facial expression, physical distance between sender and receiver Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication. It can convey status, level of engagement and emotional state Choice of communication channel Channel richness: 1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously 2. Facilitate rapid feedback 3. Of a very personal nature Choice of channel depends on both channel richness and on whether the message is routine. (routine: low richness of channel is sufficient) Oral Communication is the best choice when one needs to gauge the receiver’s receptivity. Written communication is the most reliable mode for complex and lengthy communications. Next to that, it can also be efficient for short messages. It however lacks any emotional expression. Expression through correct grammar and the use of appropriate vocabulary is still important. Letters are of an authentic nature, in some cases this is preferred. Also, handwritten signatures are still used for contracts. Issues when choosing email: 1. Risk of misinterpreting the message 2. Fallout from negative messages (this is preferred to be done face-to-face) 3. Time-consuming nature 4. Limited expression of emotions (As a consequence, people say things via email they would never say in person) 5. Privacy concerns (emails are being monitored a lot, recipient can’t always be trusted for keeping information confidential – so don’t write things you wouldn’t want to be made public and be cautious in forwarding emails to accounts outside of the organization) Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 6. Professionalism (formal language should be used) General critiques of the book on using text messaging: 1. Distracting, makes it hard for employees to stay focused 2. Not very secure – can be intercepted easily The use of social media within companies comes with several pros and cons. Pros: 1. Training 2. Recruiting 3. Collaborative learning opportunities for employee 4. More sharing of service/ product – advantage for company Cons: 1. Difficult to control posting of content about company 2. In general just difficult to control As an employee, it is important to communicate well about your activities on social media when you decide to mention/ use the company. Companies are still cautious towards the storing of information ‘in the cloud’, as this is not always considered a very secure method. Also, they tend to monitor a lot of information transferred by employees. It is important that they are open about this towards employees, as it otherwise may seem invasive as an employee. Persuasive communication - Automatic and controlled processing Automatic processing: small things (like adverts, shiny images) that (unconsciously) influence our decision-making. Controlled processing: more effortful, you consciously make a choice. This is based on several arguments. (For example when buying a house) There are a few rules of thumb for determining what types of processing an audience will use: 1. Interest level: amount of interest that an audience has in a certain topic 2. Prior knowledge: The more, the more controlled processing 3. Personality, for example: when you have high need for cognition, you need evidence and facts to be persuaded. Others might more rely on intuition/ cognition 4. Message characteristics: Lean communication channels encourage automatic processing, while messages provided through richer communication channels encourage a more controlled way of processing. In general, use emotionally laden messages when automatic processing is likely, while rational arguments and evidence should be used when a crowd is interested/ rich channels are used and thus controlled processing is likely. Barriers to effective communication 1. Filtering When a sender purposely manipulates information so it will seem more favourably by the receiver. The more vertical levels in an organization, the more filtering will take place. Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 2. Selective perception Receivers tend to process information selectively based on their needs, motivations, expectations etc. 3. Information overload In this way, possible valuable information may be lost. (Often the case with emails) Also employees might get a burn-out or something like that, as it is very difficult to go ‘offline’ nowadays. 4. Emotions Mood influences interpretation, difficult to be rational 5. Language Also when people do speak the same language, age and culture very much influence the meaning of certain sentences and the words being used. The assumption that words and terms mean the same to sender and receiver is often incorrect. 6. Silence Withholding of information is often a problem. Supportive attitude of managers towards employees decreases this withholding of information. 7. Communication apprehension Also known as social anxiety. Widely noticed in Eindhoven, where the illness goes under the name ‘autisme’. Carriers of the disease are commonly seen as ‘kneusjes’. 8. Lying More at the phone than face-to-face. Lying can be done in very smart, believable, way. This makes it difficult to detect and thus a big barrier for effective communication. Cross-cultural communication - Cultural barriers These are barriers partly caused by semantics. Words mean different things to different people. Some words exist in a certain language, but are not translatable into English, and vice versa. Next to that, there are barriers caused by tone differences. Some language is for example more informal than others. Also, there exist barriers caused by word connotations. Words imply different things in different languages. Finally there are differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts. - Cultural context In some countries, context is more important than in others. Context in this case is mostly determined by nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication with others. Reputation and place in society also play a big role. High-context cultures exist a lot in Asia. Europe and North America are of a more low-context nature. - A cultural guide Effective communication between different cultures can be achieved through: 1. Knowing yourself – recognizing your own cultural identity 2. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness and democracy 3. Learn the cultural context of each person 4. When in doubt, listen to the people of other cultures. Don’t speak your opinions too early. 5. State facts, not your interpretation 6. Consider the other person’s viewpoint Gedownload door Alex Tartaras ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11457389 7. Proactively maintain the identity of the group. Try to establish a common-ground ‘third- culture’ for the group. In conclusion: - The less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction - Distortions, ambiguities and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and thus reduce satisfaction Implications for managers: - Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness - Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages are understood - Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when possible - Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message you’re sending - Keep in mind communication barriers such as language and culture Chapter 12 ‘Leadership’ Think about when you led a group. Was it successful? Why of why not? Leadership Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Early theories Trait theories of leadership Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders. De Gaulle, Churchill and Roosevelt have all been described in terms of their tra

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