Subterranean Organs 2024 (Complete) PDF

Underground Organs  Leaves  Stems  Flowers  Roots Drugs From Natural Plant Origin: 1. Organized Drugs (definite organs)  Leaf  Flowers  Barks  Fruits and Seeds  Herb: when the active constituent distributed in all plant parts.  Underground: when drugs derived from undergro...

Underground Organs  Leaves  Stems  Flowers  Roots Drugs From Natural Plant Origin: 1. Organized Drugs (definite organs)  Leaf  Flowers  Barks  Fruits and Seeds  Herb: when the active constituent distributed in all plant parts.  Underground: when drugs derived from underground parts e.g. Root and/or Rhizomes. 2. Unorganised Drugs  The subterranean organs comprise two types : 1- Stem origin: such as rhizomes, corms, bulbs and tubers 2- Root origin: such as roots and root tubers. Subterranean organs perform as storage organs for the reserve material which required for the subsequent use of the plant perenation and production of 2ry metabolites. ❖It is impracticable to classify the drugs of this class separate roots and rhizomes, as in many herbaceous plants the rhizome passes gradually into the root e.g. Dandelion. ❖Many drugs of this class consist of portions of both stem and root origins. ❖ in other plants as Valerian and Hydrastis both roots and rhizomes are collected together. ❖Some drugs which are commonly spoken of as roots consist partly or wholly of rhizome e.g. Gentian and Rhubarb respectively. ❖ In many cases the transition from stem to root makes an accurate differentiation of the two parts impossible. The general characters of roots and rhizomes may therefore be usefully discussed together.  The Root The root is the portion of the plant axis derived from the radicals and grows towards the soil and water. The roots are Characterized by:  It never develops leaves.  It shows no nodes and internodes.  It bears no buds.  Its growing point is covered by special tissue called root-cap or calyptra.  Unlike the stem, it shows no chlorophyll and has one kind of lateral appendage which is similar in structure to the parent root but differ in direction. Composition of the root: Root consists of four zones: 1. Zone of root cap (zone of growing point). 2. Zone of cell division. 3. Zone of cell elongation. 4. Zone of cell differentiation (zone of root hairs). 5. In Addition; Zone of lateral branch. Functions of the root: 1. Absorption of water, soluble minerals and organic compounds form the soil and transportation of them to the stem. 2. It Anchors the plant to the ground. 3. As storage organ and for propagation.  Type of Roots 3 1. Primary roots: Developing into tap-root e.g. Senega. 2. Secondary roots: Lateral branches of tap-root 4 e.g. Kremeria. 3. Adventitious roots: Arise from the stem e.g. Ipecacuanha and Calumba. 4. Prop roots: Adventitious roots but arise from the stem, above the soil and extending diagonally 5 1&2 into the soil e.g. Maize. 5. Fibrous roots: Very slender as in Grasses. 6. Aerial roots: Adventitious roots hanging in the air or growing down to anchor in 6 the ground e.g. Ficus Bengalensis. 7. Respiratory roots: Growing from the soil 7 into air for respiration e.g. some plants growing in water-logged soil. 8. Storage roots: Roots swollened with reserve food material. It may be primary 8 e.g. Belladonna, secondary e.g. Umbelliferous roots, adventitious e.g. Calumba or it may be very swollen roots and called root tubers CONDITION: Drugs of roots occur usually in dry conditions, rarely fresh. They may be: Entire of rarely so e.g. Senega. Sliced longitudinally e.g. Althea or transversely e.g. Calumba. Peeled e.g. Liquorice. Shape: Cylindrical e.g. Sarsaparilla. Subcylindrical e.g. Rauwolfia. Teret: when tapering gradually. Twisted e.g. Scammony. Obconical e.g. Aconite and Carrot. Fusiform e.g. Jalap. Napiform globular e.g. Turnip. Structure and Secondary thickening in root Secondary thickening takes place in Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms only. The cambium is originated in the parenchyma below the phloem, in the conducting parenchyma and in the pericycle outside the protoxylem arches forming a stellate ring. This cambium divides to give secondary phloem outwards and much xylary tissue, secondary xylem, inwards so the cambium becoming circular in form. Opposite each protoxylem group the cambium forms a primary medullary ray. At the same time phellogen is formed in the pericycle dividing to give outer cork and inner wide pheloderm, thus cutting off the piliferous layer, primary cortex and endodermis.  As a result of secondary thickening, the old dicotyledonous root is formed of the following layers. 1. Cork. 2. Phelloderm. 3. Collapsed primary phloem. 4. Secondary phloem 5. Cambium. 6. Secondary xylem. 7. Primary xylem groups in the center. 8. The pith is usually absent except in Aconite. Anomalous Secondary Thickening: Some medicinal roots show abnormal types of secondary thickening as: Ipecacuanha: The vascular cambium yields a small and dense xylem to the inside and very narrow ring of phloem outwards with short wedges of sieve tissues. The phellogen produces a very wide starchy parenchymatous phelloderm. Senega: The xylem is wedged by the formation of wide, V-shaped, Furthermore, excessive secondary phloem is abnormally developed and producing an external ridge termed the keel. Aconite:The cambium retains its stellate form and develops little secondary xylem and wide parenchymatous phloem with little amount of sieve tissue. The root shows wide medullary rays and parenchymatous pith. The tegumentary tissue in aconite is the metaderm.  SUBTERRANEAN STEMS Difference between aerial stem and the subterranean stem: 1. It bears scale and not foliage leaves. 2. It bears adventitious roots arising generally from the nodes. 3. It has growing point protected by scale and not by compactly arranged rudimentary leaves. Difference between subterranean stem and root: 1. It generally, has nodes and internodes. 2. It bears scale leaves with axillary buds. 3. Numerous adventitious roots are generally arising from the nodes. 4. It has growing point protected by scale leaves and not by root- cap. 5. Histologically, it shows a central pith and numerous collateral not radial vascular bundles Functions of Subterranean Stem: 1. They function as a mean of perennation 2. They serve as storage organs for reserve food materials e.g. starch, inulin, sugars etc. 3. May contain 2ry metabolites.  Mode of Branching Monopodial: In which the main axis continues growing and produces the successive yearly portions of the axis e.g. Filix mas. Sympodial: In which the main axis stop growing as a result of destructing of the apical bud. The main axis continues its growth by the development of axillary buds in the axil of scale leaves e.g. Ginger. 3In some cases, the rhizome starts its growth monopodially but, later on continues sympodially e.g. Iris. CONDITION: Subterranean stems are usually present in dry conditions, rarely fresh e.g. Colchicum corm. They are: Entire or nealy so e.g. Veratrum. In brocken pieces e.g. Ginger. In longitudinal slices e.g. Valerian or in transverse slices e.g. Colchicum. Peeled or decorticated e.g. Ginger and Rhubarb. Direction of Growth: may be Horizontally: It is the usual type in this case, it shows scars of the aerial shoots or buds with encircling scale leaves on the upper side and roots or their scars on the lower side e.g. podophyllum and Ginger. Vertically: In this type, the subterranean stem shows roots and scale leaves all over the surface with a large bud at the apex. Also, it shows annulated surface due to the presence of the encircling leaf scars e.g. Veratrum and Valerian. Obliquely: It is occasional type in which, the aerial parts leave the subterranean stem with angles equal to that between the subterranean stem and the ground level e.g. Filix mas.  Types of subterranean stem 1Rhizome: It shows nodes and short or long internodes, terminal bud and arial shoots e.g. Rhubarb. 2Sobole: It is a rhizome with long slender internodes e.g. Couch Grass. 3Root Stock: It is composed of the lower modified subterranean portion of aerial stem attached to the root. It bears buds e.g. Senega. 4Sucker: It is a branch growing under the ground and arising either from a stem e.g, Mentha or from the top of the root e.g. Rose. 5Stem-tuber: It is swollen with reserve food material and shows small scales, buds as well e.g. Potato. 6. Corm: It is a shortened swollen erect under ground base of the stem, covered with scale leaves, have large apical bud and small axillary ones. It usually produces a daughter corm e.g. Colocasia and Colchicum. 7. Bulb: It is formed of reduced flattened discoid stem with crowded fleshy scale leaves and adventitious roots. It bears a terminal and axillary buds. There are two kinds of bulbs: Scaly bulb: The fleshy scales overlap at their margins e.g. Scilla indica. Tunicated bulb: The outer scales are larger and completely encircling the inner ones e.g. Onion and Squill.  Structure of Subtarranean Stems: Subarranean stems generally resemble in structure the aerial stems. They are almost devoid of sclerenchymatous tissue as they are not in need of supporting themselves. They are formed of the following layers : 1. The Tegumentary layer: the outer protective layer and may be: a) Epidermis: is persistent in some cases as in couch Grass. b) Cork: is formed of few rows of regular layers of suberised or lignified cells with no intercellular spaces e.g. Liquorices and Rauwolfia. c) Metaderm: consists of few rows of irregularly arranged suberised cells derived from the outer layers of the cortex, so may show intercellular spaces. 2. The Cortex: It is formed of thin-walled parenchyma filled with reserve materials. In Dicotyledons, it is wide showing few root-or leaf-traces, while in Monocotyledons, it shows numerous closed vascular bundles. In pteridophyta, the cortex shows nonlignified sclerenchymatous hypodermis. 3. The Endodermis: is usually indistinguishable in Dicotyledons, though it may be clear as in Valerian. In Monocotyledons it is distinct. 4- The Vascular Bundles : a) Open: showing cambium, widely separated by medullaey rays forming a single ring around the pith e.g. Podophllum or the secondary tissues are greatly developed formed continuous ring around the pith e.g. Dicotyledons like Liquorice and Rauwolfia. b) Closed: numerous and scattered in both the cortex and the stele being smaller and more numerous near the endodermis e.g. Ginger and Monocotyledons. Sometimes, they are restricted to a single layer within the endodermis surrounding a central pith e.g. Couch grass Open vascular bundel Closed vascular bundel  Anomalous Secondary Thickening: Anomalous structures in subterranean stems may be present. In Rhubarb, abnormal bundles are developed in the pith as radiating stellate structure called star spot. It is formed by abnormally developed cambium which results from activation of parenchyma cells around the collapsed perimedullary phloem. This cambium gives phloem to the inside and xylem to the outside with radiating slightly curved medullary rays filled with dark brown contents. OFFICIAL ROOTS  1. Ipecacuanha root (Erquel Thahab) Ipecacuanha is the dried root or the root and rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot) known as Rio or Brazilian Ipecacuanha, or of Cephaelis acuminata known as Cartagena Ipecacuanha, Fam. Rubiaceae. Macroscopical characters ❖ The roots of Rio Ipecacuanha are subcylindrical, slender and tortuous. ❖ It measures 5-7 cm long, 2-4 mm thick. ❖ The colour is dark brick-red to dark-brown. ❖ They are marked by transverse constrictions which may reach as far as the wood and give an appearance of about 8 annulations per centimeter. ❖ Some roots have portions of rhizome attached which cylindrical, the surface is longitudinally striated, with occasional buds and the annulations are absent The transversely cut surface of Rio Root shows a central core of yellowish- white dense wood occupying about 1/3 of the diameter, surrounded by the cambium line and a wide grayish bark, with a thin cork externally. While Rhizome is showing a narrow bark, a dense yellowish-xylem and definite pith. C. Ipeca C. acuminaa The Cartagena Ipecacuanha differs from the Rio drug as follows: 1. It is grayish-brown and showing the transverse ridges at intervals of 1-3 mm. (mainly rhizome) # dark brick-red to dark-brown. (mainly root) 2. Longer and thicker, 3-9 mm thick. # usually 5-7 cm long, 2-4 mm thick 3. The ridges (annulaion) extend only about half way the circumference 0.5-1.0 mm wide. # about 8 annulations per centimeter Microscopical Characters: Rio Ipecacuanha: The root: Cork: narrow, dark brown and is composed of several layers of thin walled cells. Phelloderm: or secondary cortex: wide parenchymatous containing starch granules and scattered raphides of calcium oxalate. The starch grains are muller-shaped (up to 15 u in dimeter). They are usually compound and formed of two to eight components. The Pholem: Very narrow with short wedges of sieve tissues embedded in parenchyma with no sclerenchymatous cells or fibres. The xylem: All xylem elements are lignified. The primary xylem is triarch and found at the centre of the root. The Rhizome: T.S shows a ring of xylem and a large pith. The pericycle contains elongated rectangular sclerenchymatous cells with pitted lignified walls. The number of them per milligram of stem is constant and may be used to determine the proportion of stem present in powdered root of Ipecacuanha. The pith: composed of pitted lignified parenchyma.  Abundant starch granules, mostly compound (2 to 8 Parenchyma of the phelloderm, filled with starch components), ovoid to spherical or muller shaped. granules or occasionally, containing bundles of acicular Cartagena 15 u & in Rio 22 u crystals of calcium oxalate. The tracheids or traceidal vessels which are found in groups of small lignified, moderately thick-walled cells and having numerous bordered pits. Powder CONSTITUENTS 1. Isoquinoline alkaloids emetine, cephaetine and psychotrine. 2. Monoterpinoid isoquinoline glycosides including ipecoside and alangiside. 3. Iridoid glycosides sweroside and 7- dehydrologainin. 4. Acid saponin and ipecacuanhic acid 5. Starch and calcium oxalate.  USES: 1. Expectorant and emetic. 2. diaphoretic and cholagogue. 3. Its most important use is as a remedy for amoebic dysentry if given in large doses.(emetine hydrochloride is given by injection) 4. Emetine has antitumour activity. 5. Psychotrine and o-methyl ether are selective inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus.  TEST FOR IDENTITY Digest about 0.1 g. of powder + 4 cc. of cone. HCL+ 1 Filter add to the filtrate crystals of potassium chlorate cc of water yellowish colour is rapidly produced, which gradually changes to orange and finally to red within an hour. (test due to emetine alkaloid).  2. Liquorice Sweet Wood, Erqusous Liquorice is the dried peeled or unpeeled root and rhizome of Glycrrhiza glabra Linne var. Typica known as Spanish Liquorices or Glycyrrhiza glabra var. Glandulifera known as Russian Liquorice or of other varieties of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linne. Fam. Leguminosae CULTIVATION AND COLLECTION: Spanish liquorice is cultivated by replanting pieces of the stolons, having 2-3 buds of aerial shoots. The underground organs are developed at sufficient extent by the end of 3-4 years, when they are dug-up, washed and cut into short pieces. Root-lets and buds are removed and the drug is dried rapidly in the sun and finally in a heated chamber. 1- Spanish liquorice : Consists chiefly of stolons with few pieces of roots. Mostly cylindrical, 14-20 cm long and 5-20 mm in diameter. The unpeeled drug is dark-brown or reddish-brown in colour, longitudinally wrinkled externally and the stolons bear occasional small buds, scaly leaves and scars of slender side-roots. The peeled drug shows longitudinal flattish areas (resulting from the use of knife for peeling). * The peeled drug has very sweet taste which almost free from bitterness and acridity. 2- Russian Liquorice: It consists mainly of roots together with root-stock. The unpeeled drug occurs in somewhat tapering pieces up to 30 cm in length and 1-5 cm in diameter *The taste is sweet but usually not entirely free from bitterness and acridity. Microscopical Characters: Rhizomes and roots of liquorice have typical structure except the absence of pith in the root and presence of the tetrach primary xylem in the center of the root. Layers: 1- Cork 2- Cortex and starch. 3-Pericyclic fibers 4-Phloem fibers 5- Cambium 6-Xylem with wood fibers All fibers with crystal sheath. In case of Rhizome found Pith Powder Fibers with crystal sheath Xylem vessels. Cork cells  CONSTITUENTS: 1. A sweet principle Glycyrrhizin, the potassium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid. 2. Flavonoid compounds, liquiritin, isoliquirtin rhamnoliquirtin which on drying is converted into liquiritin, liquiritigenin and isoliquiritigenin. 3. A coumarin compound, liqcoumarin. 4. Sugars, starch, protein, β-sitosterol and a bitter principle glycyramarin.  Uses: 1. Demulcent and mild expectorant. 2.In cough mixtures as expectorant and to mask the taste of nauseous medicaments. 3. For gastric and duodenal ulcers. 4.In treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and various inflammatory conditions due to its deoxycorticosterone effect. 5. As gentle laxative. 6. Mouth wash for mouth ulcers. N.B.: Contraindicated in pregnancy and hypertension. Tests for Identity: * Mix a little of powder with 1-2 drops of sulphuric acid (66% v/v), an orange-red colour is produced. * Shake the aqueous decoction of liquorice, a voluminous froth is produced. Adulteration: *Curcuma powder; It can be detected by presence of gelatinized starch and yellow masses. *Olive stone: Its presence is verified by presence of stone cells.  3. Senega It is the dried root and root - stock of Polygala Senega Linne, Fam. Polygalaceae. Fragments of smaller vessels and numerous slit-shaped pits tracheids. TESTS FOR IDENTITY: 1. The powder is boiled with water, the solution is strongly shaken voluminous persistent froth is formed. 2. Extract the powder with ether, filter and then evaporate the ether. Dissolve the residue in chloroform, transfer to a test-tube and run in on the side of the tube (carefully) conc. sulphuric acid. A dark reddish-brown zone is formed between the two liquids and a faint greenish fluorescence in the acid within 24 hours. CONSTITUENTS: Triterpenoid saponins: Senegin, on hydrolysis it yields glucose presenegenin, senegenin (which is a chlorine-containing triterpenoid), senegenic acid and polygalic acid. Senegin II on hydrolysis gives presengenin as the aglycone and a number of sugars senegenin USES: ❖ Senega is used as expectorant in chronic bronchitis. It is often prescribed with other expectorants such as ipecacuanha and ammonium citrate. ❖ Emetic. ❖ Relieve spasms ❖ Sialagogue (promotes the flow of saliva) ❖ Traditionally believed to treat snake bites, hence the name)  4- Aconite )‫)خانق الذئب‬ It is the dried tuberous root of Aconitum napellus Fam. Ranunculaceae. Active constituents: 1- Alkaloiods; aconitine, picraconitine and aconine 2- Other alkaloids; hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline, nealine and mesaconitine Uses: 1- Externally in neuralgia and rheumatism 2- Internally in case of fever and pain ( now rarely used as it is very potent poison) Unofficial Roots  1- RADIX GINSENG Ginseng is the dried roots of the cultivated plants of Panax quinquefolium Linne, known in commerce as American ginseng and of Panax Shin-seng Nees, known in commerce as Chinese ginseng, Fam. Araliaceae. COLLECTION AND PREPARATION:  The drug is collected from plants of 3 to 6 years old in autumn or late summer.  The plant is harvested when 6 years old.  Sun-drying of the root after cleaning and removal of the outer layers produces the white ginseng.  Whereas the red ginseng can be obtained by first steaming the root, followed by artificial then sun-drying.  The roots are graded and packed. CONSTITUENTS: 1. A complex mixture of saponins of both steroidal and pentacyclic triterpenoidal in nature. They are termed ginsenoside ( japaness) or Panaxosides ( Russian). 2. Panacene. 3. Volatile oil. 4. Sterols free or in glycosidal form. 5. Polyacetylene derivatives, B-elemene and panxinol. 6. Starch, pectin and simple sugars. 7. Vitamins, choline and flavonoids. USES: 1. Adaptogenic i.e. increase resistance to adverse influences and improve physiological functions. 2. Antifatigue (mental and physical). 3. Antistress and antiaging. 4. In treatment of diabetes. 5. Reproductive system enhancement as it promotes growth of testes and increases sperm formation (Phytoestrogens and aphrodisiacs). 6. Antioxidant and anticancer. 7. Immune system enhancement. TESTS FOR IDENTITY: 1- With a drop of sulphuric acid, the powder shows a brick-red colour changing to red-violet and then violet within 5 minutes. 2. Evaporate few drops of the decoction (boiling herbal or plant material) in a test tube and add to the residue a benzidine solution in sulphuric acid (0.01%) where a persistent brick- red colour appears due to oxidising agents.  2-Calumba It is the dried transversely or obliquely sliced root of Jateorhiza palmata Fam. Menispermaceae. Constituents: 1- Isoquinoline alkaloids; palmatine, jareorrhizine and calombamine 2- Non alkaloidal bitter principles, the furanoterpenes, calumbin, isocalumbin, palmarin, jateorin and isojateorin 3- Mucilage and starch. Uses: 1-Stomachic and bitter tonic 2- Prescribed in anorexia and flatulent dyspepsia  3-Rauwolfia (Indian snake root) It is the dried rhizome and roots of Rouwolfia serpentina fam. Apocyanaceae Constituents:  1-Alkaloids: ajmaline, ajmalinine, ajmalicin, serpintine, serpintinine, reserpine and rescinnamine  2- Phytosterols, fatty acids, unsaturated alc. And fumaric acid. Uses: 1-Used in hypertension, neuropschyiatric disorders 2- Used in treatment insomnia 3-Ajmaline has a quinoline – like action used in cardiac arrhythmias 4- It promotes brest cancer from previously initiated cells  SARSAPARILLA ROOT Sarsaparilla is the dried root and sometimes also the rhizome of Smilax ornate, known as Jamaica Sarsaparilla Fam. Lilaceae: Constituents ❖ Steroidal saponins which are closely related to cortisone and sex hormones as Sarsaponin, Similagenin and Sarsaparilloside. ❖ Sarsaponin up on hydrolysis gives the genin called sarsapogenin and sugars. ❖ Similagenin is isomer of Sarsapogenin Sarsapogenin Similagenin USES: ❖ Formerly used in treatment of syphilis (is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum) ❖ Rheumatism. ❖ Certain skin diseases as psoriasis (thick, red, scaly patches with mild itching and eczema (has intense itching). ❖ The genins are used in the partial synthesis of cortisone and other steroids as testosterone. ❖ As a general tonic. OFFICAL RHIZOMES GINGER  1- Rhizoma Zingiberis (Ginger - Ryzomatula Zanjabeel) Ginger is the fresh or dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale roscoe Fam. zingiberaceae, deprived of the dark outer tissues and known as unbleached Jamaica Ginger. The plant is native of South-eastern Asia. It is cultivated in India, Nigeria, West Africa and Jamaica.  Cultivation and Preparation:  Ginger grows well in well-drained rich loamy soil at subtropical Temperature and by the presence of abundant rain-fall. The plants are propagated from cuttings of the rhizomes, called fingers, each bearing a bud. The rhizomes are collected then Cleaned by removal of soil, buds, roots, and soaked overnight in water. After soaking, the rhizomes are carefully peeled, (removing the cork and some of the underlying parenchyma) washed and then dried in the sun for 5 to 6 days. The product is known as "Unbleached Jamaica Ginger". Coated or whitened by dusting with lime or calcium carbonate (Limed Ginger). They are less susceptible to insect attacks. It occurs in branched pieces known as "hands" or races. Each piece consists of a horizontal rhizome from which branches about 3-6cm long and known as (fingers) arise vertically, and terminating with undeveloped bud. Externally; ginger is pale yellowish-buff, and longitudinally striated or fibrous. Oil cell with suberized walls and containing yellowish-brown oleo-resin thin-walled septate fibres, with slit-like pits, only the middle lamella is lignified. Starch granules Oleoresin cells Active constituents: 1-Volatile oil which is responsible for the aroma, consisting of monoterpenes (phellandrene, camphene, cineole, citral and borneol) and sesquiterpenes (zingiberene and bisabolene). 2- A yellowish oily body, called gingerol and shogaols, which is odourless but with an intensely pungent taste (phenolic compound). This pungency is destroyed by boiling with 2% potassium hydroxide solution. 3- Resin and starch (56%). USES: 1-Travel and motion sickness (the phenolic compounds responsible for relaxing the muscles of the stomach), the study indicated that the powdered ginger may be a more effective antiemetic than dimenhydrinate (Dramamine). 2- Indigestion and nausea; sickness in pregnancy. 3- Sluggish circulation, especially where hands and feet are cold by improving the circulation, ginger helps high blood pressure, it also increases sweating and helps reduce body temperature and fever. 4- Ginger is warming and soothing for coughs, cold, flu and other respiratory problems. 5- High cholesterol levels.  Adulteration: 1- Japanese ginger: a) Obtained from Zingiber mioga. b) Starch grains are compound. c) The volatile oil differs from the official drug in physical properties. d) The taste is less pungent. 2- Exhausted ginger: it can be detected by: a) Determination of the amount of extractives i.e. matter extracted by solvents such as water or alcohol (decreased). b) Presence of gelatinized starch exhausted ginger may have its pungency increased by the addition of capsicum which can be detected by heating in a water bath the liquid extract with caustic alkali. The liquid is then evaporated, the residue acidified with HCl, and shaken with ether. Some of the ethereal solution evaporated and the residue left should not be pungent to taste. (KMNO4) 3- Foreign starches, that is easily detected microscopically. Precautions from (AHPA)( American Herbal Products Association) 1. Ginger should not be used by children under 2 years of age. 2. Ginger intake should not exceed 2 to 4 g per day(excessive doses of the herb may cause mild heartburn). 3. It should not be used during pregnancy. 4. People with gallstones should consult a physician before taking ginger (Why?)  2- Rhubarb Dried rhizomes and big roots of Rheum Palmatum, Rheum officinal, and other species of Rheum except Rheum rapontecum.(Fam. Polygonaceae). ❖ Rhubarb is propagated by seeds. ❖ It is cultivated in sandy and clay loamy soils. ❖ When it about 6-10 years old deprived of its cork and dried. ❖ Pieces often show holes indicating that they we threaded into cords for drying in the shade. ❖ The drug may be also artificially dried. Rhubarb occurs in subcylindrical, barrel-shaped, conical plano-convex or rectangular pieces If the trimming has been severe there may be seen upon the surface numerous groups of radiating dark, reddish-orange lines known as (Star spots), which result from sections of abnormal vascular strands occurring in the pith. Microscopical Characters: T.S. in Rhubarb shows the following layers: The cortex: If present, is very narrow consisting of polygonal, parenchymatous cells, containing simple or compound starch granules and large clusters of Caox The phloem: If present, is parenchymatous, the sieve tissue is in scattered groups, mostly obliterated and collapsed, it is traversed by reddish-brown medullary rays, 2-5 cells wide with reddish-brown contents and showing numerous large clusters of Caox., the phloem parenchyma contains starch granules. The xylem: It is formed of a narrow ring within the cambium and traversed by parenchymatous medullary rays, of 2-3 cells wide with brown amorphous contents, the vessels are non-lignifled, isolated or in small groups. The pith: It consists mostly of parenchyma and irrigularly traversed by star-shaped, amphivasal, abnormal vascular bundles called star spots. There are no sclerenchymatous fibres or cells and the commercial rhubarb has no cork. Star spot  Powdered Rhubarb Microscopically, it is characterized by: 1-Abundant fragments of parenchyma containing starch granules. 2-Fragments of medullary ray cells, with brownish contents 3-fragments of non- lignified vessels. 4-Numerous large cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. 5-Numerous starch granules, simple or compound, with a central cleft hilum.  non-lignified reticulate cluster crystals of Ca spiral or annular ox. vessels. Starch granules Active Constituents I- Anthraquinones derivatives (2-4.5%) of the following types:  Anthraquinones without a carboxyl group e.g. chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, emodin and physcion and their glycosides.  Anthraquinones with a carboxyl group e.g. rhein and glucorhein.  Anthrones or dianthrones of chrysophanol or emodin or aloe-emodin or physcion e.g. sennosides A & B and the oxalates of these, sennosides E and F.  Heterodianthrones e.g. palmidin A, palmidin B and palmidin C. Also sennidin C and sennoside C, reidin B and C.  Barbaloin II- Astringent compounds: glucogallin, free gallic acid, epicatechin gallate and catechin. III- Starch and calcium oxalate Uses: 1. In small doses rhubarb is used as a bitter stomachic and in large doses it is used in the treatment of diarrhaea (purgation being followed by an astringent effect), due to the tannins present. 2. In cases of indigestion with diarrhaea. 3. As a mild laxative. 4. It has been used in jaundice, sores and cancer. TESTS FOR IDENTITY: 1- Microsublimation: Powdered rhubarb gives a yellow needle-shaped sublimate, which dissolves in potassium hydroxide T.S. giving a reddish colouration. 2- Test for anthraquinone derivatives: Boil 0.1 g powdered rhubarb with 5. ml of 10% sulphuric acid for two minutes to hydrolyse any glycosides. Filter while hot, cool the filtrate and shake with benzene. To the clear benzene solution add half its volume of 10% ammonia, shake and allow to separate when the ammonical layer will have acquired a rose-pink colour. TESTS FOR PURITY: 1- When the powder is examined under Ultra Violet light no chiney blue violet spots or particles (Rhapontic Rhubarb). 2- Place on a slide 2-3 drops of 10% freshly prepared solution of furfural in alcohol and 3 drops of sulphuric acid, then sprinkle little of the powder and examine immediately under the microscope: a bluish-violet colour should not be produced (Rhapontic Rhubarb) Adulterants: 1- English Rhubarb: two species a) R. officinale resemble the Chinese drug, but being more spongy, shrink and wrinkle as they dry, and are softer to cut, the white reticulations are commonly absent, the star-spots are fewer and more scattered. The constituents are similar to the Chinese drug. b) R. rhaponticum much shrunken and usually pinkish in colour, they can be readily distinguished by the transverse section which shows a diffused circle of isolated star-spots. It contains traces of emodin, aloe-emodin or rhein, its most characteristic constituent is a crystalline glycoside, rhaponticin, which fluoresces blue in Ultra-Violet light. 2- Chinese Rhapontic Rhubarb: It closely resembles English rhapontic, but is usually darker, often hollow in the center. Internally, it is yellow, rather than pink. A mixture of both when examined in Ultra-Violet light shows bright blue specks (rhapontic rhubarb) in a velvety- brown ground colour (official Chinese Rhubarb). 3- Indian Rhubarb: (Rheum emodi): It is shrunken, and easily cut. In Ultra-Violet light, it fluorecences deep-violet with certain amount of velvety-brown patches. It does not contain rhaponticin and gives positive test for anthraquinone derivatives. 4- Many species of Rumex root: e.g. Rumex. alpinus and R. obtusifolius have been used as substitutes for Rhubarb. They contain anthraquinone derivatives. Hydrastis rhizome.  3- Rhizoma Hydrastis (Golden Seal) It is the dried rhizome and root of Hydrastis canadensis Fam. Ranunculaceae. Constituents: 1- Isoquinoline alkaloids; hydrastine, berberine and canadine 2- Resin, starch and traces of V. oils TEST FOR IDENTITY: ❖ On micro-sublimation of powder yields a yellow crystalline sublimate of hydrastine. ❖ Shake some powdered hydrastis with chloroform, filter and evaporate the filtrate. Add to the residue I or 2 ml of sulphuric acid and a small crystal of ammonium molybdate where a green colour is given which changes to blue. ❖ Boil powder (previously extracted with chloroform) with water, filter and evaporate the filtrate to dryness. Moisten the residue with H2SO4 and add few drops of bromine, where a blood red colour is produced. Uses: 1- Hydrastine constricts the blood vessels and stimulates the autonomic nervous system. 2- Berberine has antibacterial, amebicidal and it has sedative action on the central nervous system 3- Canadine stimulates the muscles of the uterus 4- Reduce heavy menstrual bleeding and help to stop bleeding following childbirth (postpartum hemorrhage) 5- It increase digestive secretion and checks inflamation. 6- Goldenseal is a potent remedy for disorders affecting mucous membranes of the body. 7- Bitter tonic  4- Rhizoma Valerianae (Valerian or Valeriana) Valerian is the dried rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis Fam, Valerianaceae. CONSTITUENTS: 1- 1.4% of volatile oil present in the hypodermis of the root and in the endodermis of rhizome, containing chiefly bornyl isovalerianate which decomposes gradually by an enzyme to give isovalerianic acid (an oily liquid with unpleasant odour). 2- Two alkaloids Chatinine and valerianine. 3- Alcohols terpenes and a sesquiterpene alcohol (Valerianol). 4- Epoxy-iridoid esters called valepotriates USES: 1-Valerian reduces mental over activity and nervous excitability. It is beneficial for almost any stress-related. 2- It is a useful remedy for insomnia, whether caused by anxiety or overexcitement. 3- It relaxes over contracted muscles, and is helpful for shoulder and neck tension, asthma, colic, irritable bowel syndrome, muscle spasms, and menstrual pain. 4- It is used with other herbs in remedies for high blood pressure caused by stress and anxiety Unofficial rhizomes  1-Curcuma rhizome Turmeric Turmeric is the dried prepared rhizomes of Curcuma demestica, (C. longa) family Zingiberaceae. Constituents: 1- Orange-yellow volatile oil, that composed mainly of  Turmerone (60%)  Zingiberene (25%). 2-Yellow crystalline substance (curcumin). 3- Starch. 4- Resin. 5- Sugar. USES: 1- As a condiment. Colouring agent, Stimulant and carminative. As a reagent for the detection of boric acid. 2- Anti-inflammatory, has an even stronger action than hydrocortisone. 3- Antioxidant, Curcumin is more strongly antioxidant than vitamin E (choleretic strong antihepatotoxic action). 4- Treatment of jaundice and hepatitis. 5- Curcumin when applied to the skin and exposed to sunlight, it is strongly antibacterial and is useful in treating a number of conditions including psoriasis and fungal infections Tests for Identity: 1- When a small quantity of the powder is sprinkled onto a mixture of equal parts of cone. H2SO4 and alcohol 95% the particles turn red and the red colour gradually flows out into the reagent. 2- The yellow stain extracted with a mixture of ether and CHCl3 gives with a hot solution of boric acid an orange-yellow colour turing to bluish-black then black on the addition of ammonium hydroxide solution  2-Garlic Garlic is the fresh or dehydrated cloves of Allium sativum L. Fam. Liliaceae It is indigenous to central Asia, garlic is now grown worldwide. CONSTITUENTS: 1- Volatile oil, composed of sulfur containing compounds: a) Alliin (S-allyl-cysteine sulfoxide), which is highly sensitive. and quite unstable, changes rapidly into allicin under the effect of allinase enzyme. b) S-methyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide, allylpropyl disulfide, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide and other sulfide components. c) Ajoenes (E. Z- ajoene, E,Z-methylajoene and dimethylajoene). 2- Enzymes; alliinase, peroxidase and myrosinase. 3- Protein (16.8%, dry weight basis). 4- Minerals, particularly selenium, 5- Vitamins A. B and C.  USES: 1. Garlic has healing powers and before the development of antibiotics, it used in treatment of infections, from tuberculosis to typhoid. It was also to dress wounds in the first world war. Allicin, diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide are generally considered to be responsible for much of garlic's pharmacological activities. 2. It has antibiotic, antiseptic, antiviral, antioxidant and antimycotic effects. Chest infections, coughs, colds and flu. 3. Reduce cholesterol, lower blood pressure, prevent the clotting of blood in thrombosis and reduce blood sugar levels.  3- Onion It is the fleshy bulb of Allium cepa Fam. Liliaceae Constituents: 1- Onion like garlic, contains organic sulfer compounds as A- Trans-S-(1-propenyl) cysteine sulfoxide B- S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide C- S-propyl cysteine sulfoxide All these compounds are converted into simpler sulfer compounds by alliinase persent when the onion cut or crushed. These simpler compound are unstable and undergo further decomposion to sulfides which are responsible for onion flavor Uses: ❖ It is reported to have many similar pharmacological action as garlic, including, antihypercholesrolemic, hypoglycemic, antifungal, antibiotic and antiplatelet aggregation. ❖ It is used as antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectotrant stomachic and anthelmintic. ❖ Increase consumption of Allium vegetables (onion) reduce gastric risk.