Root and Rhizome Lectures 2024 PDF

11/22/2024 1 Subterranean organs 2 1  11/22/2024 Flowering Plant Body The plant s have two organ systems: The shoot system The root syste...

11/22/2024 1 Subterranean organs 2 1  11/22/2024 Flowering Plant Body The plant s have two organ systems: The shoot system The root system. 3 Introduction Subterranean organs are those plant structures growing under the ground Subterranean organs used in medicine are usually collected from perennial plants where they serve as storage organs and thus generally are full of reserve food materials. They are usually rich in carbohydrate such as starch (eg Felix mas, Rhubarb), sugars (Gentian and squill), inulin (family composite) and they are devoid of chlorophyll. 4 2  11/22/2024 Subterranean organs include Subterranean stems Subterranean roots Rhizomes Corms Bulbs Stem tubers 5 The Subterranean Root The root is the portion of the plant axis which grows vertically downwards into the soil away from light and specialized as an absorbing organ. Its growing point is covered with a special tissue called root cap or calyoptra. It Carry out lateral roots, that are similar in structure & general character to the main root but differ in direction The branching of the root is usually lateral and the lateral branches are thinner and less strong than the parent root. 6 3  11/22/2024 The root is constructed of three zones: In the zone of maturation, mature cells are differentiated and epidermal cells have root hairs. In the zone of elongation, cells become longer as they specialize. The root apical meristem is in the zone of cell division; the root cap is a protective covering for the root tip. Function of root: Absorption of water & soluble substances from the soil. Fixation of the plant in the soil. Storage. Propagation. 7 Types of Roots Systems 1. Primary roots: Develop into tap roots e.g. senega 2. Secondary roots: they are the lateral roots e.g. Krameria 3. Adventitious roots: they usually arise from the stem e.g. Ipecacuanha, Jalap 4. Storage roots: they occur when the roots of any of the previously mentioned types becomes swollen with reserve food materials. 5. Tuberous roots: they are very swollen e.g Jalap, aconite and carrot 6. Fibrous roots: It is usually formed by thin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem. A fibrous root system is universal in monocotyledonous plants and ferns 7. Aerial roots: they are roots that grow on the above-ground parts of a plant on woody trees and functions as anchors, affixing the plant to supporting structures. 8 4  11/22/2024 Types of Roots Systems 9 Histology of subterranean roots The young dicot. Root primary structure Shows: 1. Rhizodermis or epiblema 2. Cortex Endodermis 3. Stele a) Pericycle b) Vascular system 10 5  11/22/2024 Histology of subterranean roots 1. Rhizodermis or epiblema The outermost layer of the root built up of a single layer of parenchyma cells that are arranged efficiently without intercellular spaces. It is devoid of cuticle and stomata. The major task of rhizodermis is protection. The piliferous layer (root-hair zone) The region of the epidermis of a root, a short distance from the tip, that produces abundant root hairs and is involved in the uptake of water and nutrients. 11 Histology of subterranean roots 2. Cortex Cortex contains only parenchyma cells. These cells are freely arranged along with intercellular spaces to create gaseous exchange easier. These cells might store food reserves. Endodermis The most inner layer of the cortex built up of single layer of barrel shaped parenchymatous cells. Stele is entirely surrounded through the endodermis. 12 6  11/22/2024 Histology of subterranean roots The radial and the inside tangential walls of endodermal cells are thickened with suberin. these thickenings are termed as Casparian strips. But these casparian strips are not present in all the endodermal cells. The thin-walled cells with no casparian strips are called passage cells by which water and mineral salts are conducted from the cortex to the xylem elements. Water cannot pass via other endodermal cells because of the existence of casparian thickenings. 13 Histology of subterranean roots 3. Stele All the tissues surrounded by endodermis comprise the stele. It involves vascular and pericycle system. a) Pericycle It is usually a single layer cells found inner to the endodermis. It is the most outer layer of the stele. b) Vascular system 14 7  11/22/2024 Histology of subterranean roots b) Vascular system Vascular tissues are bundles xylem and phloem arranged in a circle alternating in position so each lies on a different radius and separated by conjunctive tissue. The xylem occurs in radial groups with the protoxylem towards the periphery of the root i.e the exarch According to the number of xylem groups, the root may be described as diarch, triarch, tetrarch, pentarch or polyarch 15 16 8  11/22/2024 Secondary thickening in roots (old roots) The most of the dicotyledonous roots show secondary growth in thickness. However, the roots of most monocotyledons do not show any secondary growth; they remain entirely primary throughout their life.  The older roots of woody plants form secondary tissues, which lead to an increase in girth.  These secondary tissues are produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. 17  The vascular cambium arises from meristematic cells that lie between the primary xylem and phloem.  As it develops, the vascular cambium forms a ring around the primary vascular cylinder.  The Cork cambium is one of the many layers of bark, between the cork and phelloderm. The cork cambium is a lateral meristem and is responsible for secondary growth that replaces the epidermis in roots and stems.  The development of secondary thickening result in absence of endodermis, primary cortex and piliferous layer and being absent in old roots. 18 9  11/22/2024  Cell divisions in the vascular cambium produce secondary xylem (wood) to the inside of the ring and secondary phloem to the outside.  The growth of these secondary vascular tissues pushes the pericycle outward and splits the cortex and epidermis.  The pericycle becomes the cork cambium, producing cork cells (outer bark) that replace the cortex and epidermis. 19 P1 P1 Division P1 P1 P2 P2 Secondary thickening in Division P1 P1 C P2 C C Division C P1 C C C C C X3 roots (old roots) C C C C C X2 X2 X2 X2 X2 C C X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1  One of the cells of vascular Cambium at the start of secondary growth  One of (he two (daughter cells differentiates into a xylem cell (coded red), and the other remains meristematic.  One of the two daughter cells differentiates into a phloem cell (coded blue), and the other remains meristematic  The same pattern of cell division and differentiation into xylem and phloem cells continues through the growing session 20 10  11/22/2024 21 Subterranean stems  They act as storage organs and characterized by absence of chlorophyll.  They are rich in reserve food materials (carbohydrates) as: starch (Ginger) and sugars: (Gentian). Characterized by:  Scaly leaves  Axillary buds (in the axis of scaly leaves)  Adventitious roots  A growing point protected by scale leaves forming a bud. 22 11  11/22/2024 Direction of growth:  Horizontal (Podophyllum)  Vertical (Veratrum)  Oblique (Filix mas) Mode of branching:  Monopodially (Filix mas): One growing point which persist from year to year and produce successive yearly portions of the rhizome  Sympodially (Ginger): More than one terminal bud 23 Subterranean stems characterized by:  Scaly leaves  Axillary buds (in the axis of scaly leaves)  Adventitious roots  A growing point protected by scale leaves forming a bud. Types of subterranean stems Subterranean stems Rhizomes Corms Bulbs Stem tubers 24 12  11/22/2024 1- Rhizome Most important and most common member of the group regarding medicinal value Underground stem with nodes and internodes, long or short, terminal buds and aerial shoots. It may be branched (Ginger) or non branched (Rhubarb)  Grow horizontally with the roots on the lower side and the scale leaves and buds of aerial shoots on the upper side. E.g. Podophyllum  Sometimes grow vertically with the roots and scale leaves all over the surface, which is usually annulated e.g. valerian and occasionally grow obliquely e.g. Felix mas. 25 Types of rhizomes Sobole Long, thin, tough - rapid in growth - with long internodes - e.g. couch grass Sucker Branch growing under the ground, arising from the stem (as in mentha) or from the top of the root (as in rosa) and giving off roots and aerial shoots at the nodes. Stolon Horizontal stem that produces rooted plantlets at its nodes and ends, forming near the surface of the ground. It is similar in function to a runner but is much thicker. 26 13  11/22/2024 2. Corm It is shortened swollen erect underground stem, most commonly the base of aerial stem, shows numerous nodes and short internodes covered with brown scaly leaves arising at nodes and have a large apical bud and small axillary one. The daughter corm is produced apically or laterally protected below the large apical bud. In distinction from rhizome, it is formed of one season growth, the previous season corm usually disappeared (Colchicum). 27 3. Stem tuber Swollen underground stem or part of a stem, usually the tip. It differs from the root tuber in bearing several small scales and buds as well as the terminal bud on the free end. It is full of reserve food materials (Potato) 28 14  11/22/2024 4. Bulb  Underground stem reduced to a small flattened disc and is crowned with fleshy scale leaves and having adventitious roots arising from the base of the bulb. Types of bulbs scaly bulb or tunicated bulb  In the scaly bulb, the fleshy scales nearly overlap at their margins i.e. the outer scales do not encircle the inner ones (Garlic and Lilium).  In the tunicate bulb the outer scales are completely ensheathing the inner portion of the bulb (Onion, Squill) 29 30 15  11/22/2024 Histology of subterranean stems Generally resemble in structure aerial stems : 1- Cork cells (or epidermis or metaderm). 2- Cortex. 3- Endodermis. 4- Vascular bundles (monocot. or dicot.). 5- Central pith. Microscopically 31 Histology of subterranean stems In dicot. They show large pith and wide cortex, formed mostly of thin-walled parenchyma packed with reserve materials. The cortex is traversed by few vascular bundles and the endodermis is usually indistinguishable with few exceptions. Vascular bundles are closed, separated with wide medullary rays and forming a single ring around the pith. 32 16  11/22/2024 In monocot. The structure differs from that of the aerial stem It shows a distinct endodermis separating the cortex from the central stele. Vascular bundles are closed, numerous and scattered in the cortex and stele. 33 Difference between roots and rhizomes No. Roots Rhizomes 1 No nodes and internodes Contains nodes and internodes No axillary buds, but scar of 2 Contain axillary buds rootlets No scally leaves, but contain 3 Contain scally leaves piliferous layer 4 Have root cap Have apical bud (growing point) 5 No adventituous root Have adventituous root 6 No pith Presence of central pith 7 Presence of solid xylem mass No solid xylem mass 34 17  11/22/2024 Anomalous structure in subterranean organs Some medicinal roots show abnormal types of secondary thickening which are described as Anomalous Example In subterranean Roots: Example In subterranean stems: 1. Aconite 1. Rhubarb Rhizomes 2. senega 3. Belladonna and Gentian 4. Jalap 5. Dandelion 6. Ipecacuanha 35 Anomalous structure in subterranean Roots 1-Aconite (Stellate cambium):  The cambium retains the stellate form and only little secondary xylem, but very wide phloem.  It also shows wide medullary rays and well developed parenchymatous pith.  The tegumentary tissue in Aconite is the metaderm only formed of irregularly arranged suberised cells derived from the outer layers of the cortex. Tegumentary tissue: the outer covering rotective tissue, either consisting of cork, metaderm or epidermis 36 18  11/22/2024 2-Senega (Keel):  They are present as irregularly wedged wood due to the formation of exceptionally wide one, rarely two or more parenchymatous medullary rays, while the secondary phloem is abnormally developed at one place producing an external ridge, the keel. 3-Gentian and Belladonna (Interxyllary phloem):  the xylem is well developed and constituting the main part of the root, but is formed mostly of parenchyma with scattered vessels in groups, as well as with several abnormally developed islands of interxyllary phloem. 37 4- Jalap (Ipomoea purge) (Tertiary cambium):  in the from of circles, curves or concentric rings producing only parenchyma on both sides, are developed in the wide parenchymatous xylem and enclosing a few of the xylem vessels. 5-Orizaba Jalap (Ipomoea orizabensis) (Successive cambia):  The original cambium is replaced and the roots increases in size by successive cambia of a limited period of activity developed in the pericycle, producing vascular bundles in rings 38 19  11/22/2024 6-Ipecacuanha (wedged ring phloem):  The xylem is small and dense, the phloem is weakly developed as a narrow wedged ring around the xylem and a very wide starchy parenchymatous phelloderm, constituting the secondary cortex is present. 7. Dandelion (concentric phloem & laticiferous vessels rings) :  The xylem is small and central and surrounded by unusually developed phloem, formed of concentric rings of sieve tissue and laticiferous vessels alternating parenchyma 39 Anomalous structure in subterranean stems Rhubarb (star spots)  Abnormal bundles are produced in the pith in the form of radiating structures called star spots, consisting of a central dark spot of collapsed premedullary phloem surrounded by an abnormally developed cambium, giving phloem inwards and xylem outwards, with radiating slightly curved medullary rays. 40 20  11/22/2024 Origin The dried peeled or unpeeled root and rhizome of Glycyrrhiza glabra var. typica known as Spanish Liquorice or Glycyrrhiza glabra var. glandulifera known as Russian Liquorice or of other varieties of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Family Fabaceae (Leguminosae). Taste: very sweet almost free from bitterness 41 Collection and preparation  After three years of cultivation, the underground organs are dug-up, washed and cut into short pieces.  Rootlets and buds are removed.  The roots and rhizomes (stolons) are dried rapidly in the sun and finally in a heated chamber. 42 21  11/22/2024 Macroscopical characters Spanish Russian It consists mainly of roots together with It consists chiefly of stolon with few root-stock, cylindrical, somewhat pieces of roots, cylindrical, unbranched. tapering. Externally, the unpeeled is dark brown or Externally, the unpeeled is purplish- reddish-brown in colour, longitudinally brown in colour, somewhat scaly with wrinkled, occasionally bearing small stem scars at the top. buds, scaly leaves The peeled is yellowish, coarsly Internally, the peeled is yellow, smooth, striated, fracture as Spanish, internally fibrous, finely striated. yellow radiating Central pith only in rhizome (stolon). No pith 43 Microscopical characters Rhizomes and roots of Liquorice have typical structure except the absence of pith in the root and presence of the tetrarch primary xylem in the center of the root. A transverse section in the rhizome shows the following layers: 1. The Cork: It forms a thick zone of several layers of flattened polygonal, thin-walled cells. 2. The Cortex (Phelloderm in root): It is a narrow zone composed of parenchyma cells containing isolated prisms of calcium oxalate and simple starch granules. 44 22  11/22/2024 3- Pericycle: Parenchymatous with small patches of fibers 4-Phloem: It is wide parenchymatous traversed by wavy medullary rays. The phloem fibers are slightly lignified, each group is surrounded by a sheath of parenchymatous cells, containing prisms of calcium oxalate forming a “crystal sheath”. 5-Secondary xylem: is composed of large pitted and reticulate vessels, wood fibers and wood parenchyma. The pits are bordered with slit-like opening. They occur singly or in small groups and alternate with bundles of wood fibers resembling the phloem fibers in form and in being enclosed in a crystal sheath. 45 6-Medullary rays: They are 3-5 cells being wide in the xylem and becoming funnel-shaped in the phloem. 7-Pith: only in the rhizome, dark yellow and parenchymatous. Root with 4 arch primary xylem, but no pith and shows 4 broad primary medullary rays, radiating from the center at right angle to one another. In the peeled liquorice the cork, cortex and sometimes part of phloem are absent. Starch granules are simple, small, spherical to ovoid, a slit-shaped hilum is visible in some of the larger granules. 46 23  11/22/2024 Powder: Light-yellow in color in the peeled or brownish-ye. or purplish-br. in the unpeeled. It has a faint characteristic odor and very sweetish taste. Microscopically, it is characterized by the following fragments: 1-Fibres with crystal sheath, The fiber has a lignified thick wall, narrow lumen and acute apex. 2-Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, free or in cells. 47 3- Numerous starch granules, free or in parenchyma cells showing slit-like hilum. 4- Cork may be present, consisting of polygonal thin- walled cells with brown contents. Cork cells in side view Cork cells in top view 5- fragments of xylem vessels showing bordered pits 48 24  11/22/2024 Active constituents  Triterpenoidal saponins, Glycyrrhizin 5-7% (saponin like glycoside). which is mixture of K+ and Ca++ salts of glycyrrhizinic Acid and causes the sweetness of Liquorice. The sodium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic (glycyrrhizic) acid which is 50 times as sweet as sugar. Upon hydrolysis the glycoside loses its sweet taste and is converted to the aglycone glycyrrhetic acid (Enoxolone) plus 2 molecules of glucuronic acid. 49  Flavonoid glycosides: liquiritin, isoliquiritin, liquiritoside, rhamno-liquiritin and rhamnoisoliquiritin.  Coumarin derivatives: hermiarin and umbelliferone.  Bitter principle: glycyramarin (abundant in the outer tissue).  Asparagine which is amide form of aspartic acid. 50 25  11/22/2024 Tests for identity 1- Mix a little of powdered liquorice with 1-2 drops of sulphuric acid (66% v/v); an orange- red color is produced. 2- Shake the aqueous decoction of liquorice, a persistent froth is produced. 3- Salkowiski´s test - Extract powder with acidulated ether, then evaporate and extract the residue with chloroform in a test tube, then add 1cc of Conc. H2SO4 on the tube wall deep reddish brown zone is obtained between the two layers and sulphuric layer will acquire green colour within 24 hour. 51 USES 1- Act as an expectorant with secretolytic and secretomotor actions for coughs and bronchial catarrah in which is mainly due to glycerrhizinic acid. 2- Treatment of peptic ulcer and duodenal ulcers due to combination of glycyrrhizin with other compounds (synergistic effect) stimulates and/or accelerates factors that protect against ulcer including increasing mucin production.. 3- Act as a falvouring agent to mask the taste of nauseous medicines due to sweet taste. 4- It has a demulcent effect in sore-throat due to its sweetnes and acceleration of tracheal mucosa secretion. 5- Treatment of rheumatic arthritis and Addison´sdisease (hypofunction of adrenal gland). 6- Act as anti-inflammatory due to glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetic acid, flavonoids. The action is due to inhibition of the activity of phospholipase A and the formation of prostaglandin E2. 52 26  11/22/2024 7- Glycyrrhetinic acid has been shown to have hormonal activity as estrogenic action and used as starting material for semisynthesis of cortisone and sex hormones. 8-It exerts an anticarcinogenic activity. 9-It is effective as an antiviral agent. 10-It acts as an immunostimulator. It enhances the biosynthesis of interferon, thus it is effective in viral hepatitis. 11-Antiallergic effect where glycyrrhizin inhibit the release of histamine from the antigen stimulated cells. 12- Glycyrrhizin and its aglycone are able to prevent the development of liver cirrhosis due to its antioxidant effect. 13- Used in some cosmotic preparation as a Skin-Lightening Agent (Skin whitening). 53 The mineralocorticoids effect of glycyrrhizin is due to its agylcone which attributed to: A- The affinity of glycyrrhetic acid for kidney aldosterone receptors. B- glycyrrhetic acid inhibits 5-β-reductase and 11-β-hydroxydehydrogenase leading to accumulation of cortisol and aldosterone and consequently prolonged action. Side Effects In large amounts, liquorice containing glycyrrhizin can cause high blood pressure, salt and water retention, and low potassium levels, which could lead to heart problems. DGL products are thought to cause fewer side effects. Taking liquorice together with diuretics (water pills) or other medicines that reduce the body's potassium levels could cause dangerously low potassium levels. People with heart disease or high blood pressure should be cautious about using liquorice. 54 27  11/22/2024 55 Origin Dried root and/or rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rio or Brazilian Ipecacuanha) or Cephaelis acuminata (Cartagena, Nicaragua or Panama Ipecacuanha), Family. Rubiaceae.  Contains not less than 2% of total alkaloids, calculated as emetine.  Ipecacuanha has a faint characteristic odor, which is irritant and sternutatory when in fine powdered form and a bitter acrid taste. 56 28  11/22/2024 Morphological characters Rio Or Brazilian Ipecacuanha Root The root Shape: cylindrical, slightly tortuous pieces, Color: dark brown in color. External surface: it is smooth, closely annulated, with thickened, rounded, almost complete rings, usually exhibiting transverse deep cracks. The rhizome Shape: occurs in short pieces attached to roots, External surface: fine longitudinally wrinkled but without annulations. 57 Cartagena or Panama Ipecacuanha: It differs from Rio Ipecacuanha in Size: larger Color: greyish-brown or reddish-brown, External surface: it has transverse ridges at intervals of 1-3 mm, extending about halfway round the circumference and fading at the extremities. Microscopical characters 58 29  11/22/2024 Powder: Color: Greyish-brown to light brown Taste: A bitter acrid taste Odor: Faint characteristic irritating and sternutatory odor 59 Active constituents:  Isoquinoline alkaloids (2 to 6%) 1. Emetine (1.4-1.7%) 2. Cephaeline (0.5-1.2%) 3. Psychotrine (0.05%) 4. Psychotrine methyl ether 5. Emetamine Brazilian ipeca contains 60-75% emetine of alkaloid percent while Panama ipeca yields 30-50% emetine so the Brazilian ipeca is preferred to the Panama ipeca.  Crystalline glucosidal tannin (Ipecacuanhin).  Acid saponin: epiquanine and ipecacuanhic acid.  Ipecoside: monoterpene isoquinoline glycoside. 60 30  11/22/2024 Chemical test (emetine): Digest powder with 4 ml conc. HCl, add 1 ml water, filter, add to the filtrate few crystals of potassium chlorate, a yellowish colour is rapidly produced, gradually changes to orange and finally to red within an hour. Uses 1. Expectorant due to saponins (subemetic dose) in productive cough 2. Emetic in large doses due to cephaline [Emetine has less emetic action]. 3. Treatment of amoebic dysentery (emetine-HCl injection). 4. Antidote for poisoning (tincture of ipeca with charcoal) 5. Diaphoretic and cholagogue. 6. Psychotrine and its O-methyl-Ether are selective inhibitors of HIV. 61 Adulterants: Undulated Ipecacuanha: Richardsonia scabra (F.: Rubiaceae). very starchy, porous wood, raphides very numerous, no emetine. Lesser Striated Ipecacuanha: Manaettia ignita (F.: Rubiaceae). starchy bark, finely striated, porous wood, no emetine. Greater Striated Ipecacuanha: Psychotria emetica (F.: Rubiaceae). longitudinally striated bark, starch completely absent, wood non-porous, no emetine. 62 31  11/22/2024 Origin The dried tuberous root of Ipomea purga, Family Convolvulaceae known as Mexican Jalap. Collection and preparation Tuberous roots are collected and dried in nets over fires. Larger tubers are longitudinally incised. After drying, the white interior of the drug darkens in colour. It is very hard (gelatinized Starch ) and compact. Odour slight, characteristic somewhat smoky Taste sweet, acrid and disagreeable. 63 Powder Greyish-brown to brown with a slight characteristic odour and a sweetish then acride disagreable taste. 1. Brownish cork cells. 2. Parenchyma containing starch granules, clusters of Ca. Oxalate and resin masses. 3. Few isolated sclerieds 4. Numerous starch, partly gelatininzed. 5. Reticulate and pitted vessels. 64 32  11/22/2024 Active constituents: Glycosidal resin. Colouring matter. Mannitol, sugar, starch. Phytosterol. Jalap Resin  Prepared by percolating with alcohol, pouring the concentrated extract into water, the resin is precipitated, collected, washed and dried.  Jalap resin is sparingly soluble in ether.  The main constituent of the resin is the ether insoluble portion Convolvulin or jalapin;  the ether soluble portion (10%) is assumed to be identical with Scammony or Ipomea resin. 65 Uses  Jalap is a powerful stimulant of the intestinal secretion, producing in small doses a laxative effect and in large doses active purgation.  It is a powerful hydragogue cathartic. Substituents  Orizaba Jalap: derived from Ipomea orizabensis (F.: Convolvulaceae).  It yields about 10-20% resin, of which 65% is soluble in ether (Scammony resin).  It fluoresces in Ultra-violet light with a deep bluish- violet colour. 66 33  11/22/2024 Origin The dried fermented root and rhizome of Gentiana lutea, Family Gentianaceae. Collection and preparation 2-5 years old Roots and rhizomes are collected in the autumn. The drug is made into heaps, allowed to lie for some time, covered with earth. Washed, cut into suitable lengths, then dried first in the open air and then in the sheds. By such treatment, the drug becomes darker in colour, loses some of its bitterness and acquires a distinctive odour. 67 Microscopical characters Color: yellowish-brown Odor: characteristic Taste: At first sweet but afterwards persistently bitter. Powder 1- Abundant parenchyma cells of moderately thickened walls containing globules of fixed oil and acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. 68 34  11/22/2024 2- Elongated parenchymatous cells containing globules of fixed oil and calcium oxalate crystals. 4- Fragments of markedly elongated, thin-walled Cork and phelloderm in sectional and surface view. 5- Fragment of a reticulately thickened vessel 6- Very occasion starch granules. 69 Active constituents Bitter glycosides  Fresh root contains gentiopicrin (about 2%), gentiomarin, gentin (secoiridoids in nature)  The main constituent gentiopicroside is nauseating and irritating but it is hydrolyzed during fermentation). Alkaloids: Gentolutine, gentianine, Letuline. Sugars: Gentianose, gentiobiose. Enzymes, a yellow colouring matter, pectin and fixed oil. 70 35  11/22/2024 EFFECT OF PROCESS OF FERMENTATION ON ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS  Bitter Principles: Gentiopicrin → Gentiogenin + Glucose.  Sugars: Gentianose, gentiobiose and sucrose + Enzymes → Glucose → → further fermentation → CO2 + Ethanol. The process of fermentation should be controlled to avoid conversion of all active constituents to CO2 and ethanol alcohol. If fermentation is prolonged more than necessary, the sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide, thus lowering the water-soluble extractive. Gentian should yield from 33 to 40% of water-soluble extractive. Highly fermented root yields much less water-soluble extractive 71 Gentian uses  Gentian is used for digestion problems such as loss of appetite, fullness, intestinal gas, gastritis, heartburn, and vomiting.  it promotes secretion of saliva secretion and gastric juice and stimulates appetite  It kills plasmodia (malaria causing organisms)  prevent muscle spasms, treat parasitic worms, start menstrual periods 72 36  11/22/2024 Origin The dried roots of Aconitum napellus, Family Ranunculaceae. Aconite differs in appearance according to the season of collection. When harvested in autumn it consists of both parent and daughter roots. If collected at the flowering stage it consists mainly of parent roots. 73 Powder The odour is slight and the taste sweetish, then bitter and after an interval, a sensation of numbness develops. 74 37  11/22/2024 Active constituents: Diterpene Alkaloids: aconitine, picraconitine and aconine as major alkaloids. Other alkaloids, in very small amounts; hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline, nealine and mesaconitine. Starch and aconitic acid. Uses:  Aconite preparations as well as aconitine alkaloid used externally in certain neuralgia and rheumatism.  Internally, it is given in cases of fever and pain.  Aconite is a very potent and quite acting poison which cause paralysis of respiratory muscles 75 Some preparations claimed to reduce; inflammation, joint pain and gout Confirmed risks of: Nausea, vomiting, heart problems and finally death. 76 38  11/22/2024 Origin The dried roots of Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), Family Araliaceae.  Root is fleshy, translucent yellowish brown.  Spindle, forked at the middle into two tapering ends.  Mucilagenous sweet taste similar to liquorice, with some bitterness.  It is odourless. 77  American ginseng grows in eastern North America wild-harvested.  Asian ginseng which includes both Korean and Chinese ginseng is cultivated in China, Korea and Japan. Collection and preparation  Roots harvested when 6 years old.  Sun dried after removal of the outer layers White Ginseng.  Where steaming the root, followed by artificial drying and then sun-drying Red Ginseng.  Parts used are the dried, often specially treated (cured) roots in case of Asian ginseng while American ginseng does not undergo special curing. 78 39  11/22/2024 Active constituents Category Active ingredients Effects Ginsenosides and Panaxoides Protopanaxadiols: Rai, Ra2, Ra3, Rbl, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Anti-depression, anti-tumour, Rg3, Rh2 anti-ageing, anti-ischaemic brain Tritepenoidal Protopanaxatriols: Rgl, Rg2, Re, Rf, Rhl, Rh3 injury, immunomodulation, CNS saponin oleanolic acid: Ro regulation Meanwhile, almost 40 different ginsenosides are known, which are named with codes. For example, the most important ones are Rg1 and Rb1. Monosaccharide: glucose, galactose, arabinose, Immunomodulation, anti-tumour, Ginseng rhamnose, galacturonic acid, mannose etc Disaccharide: inhibition of liver injury, polysaccharides sucrose, maltose, locust, etc Polysaccharide: ginseng hypoglycaemic activity trisaccharide and ginseng tetrasaccharide 79 Category Active ingredients Effects Ginseng Hypolipidemic and hepatic Oligopeptide 1, II, II, IV polypeptides glycogen-lowering Sesquiterpenes, panasinsanol A, B, ginsenol, γ- Bacteriostasis and improvement of Volatile oils elemene, panaxynol panaxydol, panaxytriol, ginsenyne, myocardial ischaemic injury panasinsene, etc Polyacetylenes Panaxydol, panaxytriol Anti-tumour and anti-leukaemia Organic acids Citric acid, isocitric acid, fumaric acid, linoleic acid, and esters malic acid, succinic acid, tartaric acid, panax acid, Anti-oxidation triglyceride, palmitic acid, etc Regulation of growth, metabolism Others Microelements, vitamins, alkaloids, lignans and immune function 80 40  11/22/2024 Ginseng Uses: 1- General tonic:  Ginseng acts directly on human cells to promote protein accumulation (in treatment of anemia).  Nowadays, the ginsenosides increase body weight, protein and RNA of muscles and liver.  Enhance bone-marrow mitosis.  It is used also as aphrodisiac agent. 2- Immunostimulant effects  - Aq. Ext. enhances immunoglobulins.  - Enhances the production of interferones.  - Increase the resistance to infection and support liver function. 81 3- Adaptogenic  Able to improve the ability of an organism to adapt to different external or internal disturbances.  Popular remedy for the improvement of Stamina concentration and resistance to stress. 4- Hypoglycemic effect  Ginsenosides increase the liver glucokinase enzyme activity.  Panaxans stimulate the secretion of insulin (insulinomimetic effect). 5-Alzheimer's disease.  Evidence shows that taking Panax ginseng root daily for 12 weeks can improve mental performance in people with Alzheimer's disease. 82 41  11/22/2024 6- Ginsenosides especially Rb2 decreases serum cholesterol level. 7- Correct adrenal and thyroid dysfunctions. 8- Improve many conditions arising from onset of old ages 9-Some of the ginsenosides have opposing activities as Ginsenoside Rg1 raises the blood pressure and is a central stimulant, while Rb1 lowers the blood pressure and is a central depressent. So, the standardization of Ginseng preparations is therefore of particular significance  G115 is the specific extract of Panax ginseng used in Ginsana.  The special extract G115 is produced from the roots of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer.  G115 is contains the most of important ingredients, including standardized 'ginsenosides' 83 84 42  11/22/2024 Origin The dried root of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Family Solanaceae  Ashwagandha, or Withania somnifera, is an herb native to Asia and Africa. Also called “Indian ginseng 85 Active constituents  The primary bioactive compounds in Ashwagandha roots include: o Withanolides: Steroidal lactones, such as withaferin A and withanolide D. o Alkaloids: Withanine, somniferine, and tropine. o Saponins: Particularly in the form of sitoindosides. o Flavonoids: Contributing to its antioxidant properties. o Sterols: Beta-sitosterol. o Other Components: Coumarins and iron. 86 43  11/22/2024 Uses:  Traditional Medicine: o Widely used in Ayurvedic medicine as a Rasayana (rejuvenator). o Enhances vitality and stamina and reduces fatigue.  Modern Applications: o Stress and Anxiety: Adaptogen properties help mitigate stress and anxiety by modulating cortisol levels. o Cognitive Health: Improves memory, learning, and focus. o Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory: Effective in reducing inflammation and boosting immune function. 87 Uses:  Modern Applications: o Antioxidant: Protects against oxidative damage by scavenging free radicals. o Reproductive Health: Enhances libido and fertility in both men and women. o General Health: Supports muscle strength, endurance, and energy levels. o Research: Ongoing studies suggest its potential in managing neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, and its role in cancer therapy as a complementary treatment. 88 44  11/22/2024 Origin The dried roots and sometimes rhizomes of Smilax ornata, Family Liliaceae.  Jamaica Sarsaparilla is imported in bundles about 50 cm long and 12 cm diameter. Each bundle consists of numerous long slender roots about 3 mm in thickness.  Dark reddish-brown colour. Nearly odourless, with somewhat sweetish acrid taste. 89 Active constituents  Steroidal saponins closely related to cortisone and sex hormones:  Sarsaponin: A crystalline saponin on hydrolysis it yields sarsapogenin and sugars.  Similagenin: Isomeric with sarsasapogenin. 90 45  11/22/2024 91 Cortisone like action 92 46  11/22/2024 Origin The dried rhizomes and roots of Rauwolfia serpentina, F. Apocynaceae.  Odourless but has bitter taste  Occurs in cylindrical tortuous pieces.  Outer surface is greyish-yellow to brown with few longitudinal wrinkles.  The rhizome closely resembles the root but can be identified by ??. 93 Powder  Pale brownish-yellow with slight odor and bitter taste.  Cork cells, surface view; polygonal, some are strongly lignified while others are non- lignified.  Starch granules. 94 47  11/22/2024  Irregularly prismatic calcium oxalate (conglomerate).  Lignified xyl. paren., polygonal with thickened wall and slit-shap pits.  Xyl. fibres, irregular in shape, thickened, lignified have slit shape pits and sometimes forked at one tip.  Per. fibres from the rhizome, very large unlignified, thick wall, show an ovoid enlargement at one end. 95 96 48  11/22/2024 Active constituents  Indol alkaloids (up to 1.4%), the important of which are:  ajmaline, reserpine, rescinnamine, ajmalinine, ajmalicine, serpintine, serpintinine,  The chief therapeutically important alkaloids are: reserpine and rescinnamine.  Phytosterols, fatty acids,  Unsaturated alcohols, dextrose  Fumaric acid N.B. The alkaloids are isolated from the resin cells in the phloem. 97 Uses  Treatment of hypertension due to reserpine, rescinnamine  Treatment of certain neuropsychiatric disorders and insomnia due to the tranquilizer effect of reserpin.  Treatment of cardiac arrythmia due to ajmaline that has pharmacological properties similar to those of quinidine. The antihypertensive action of reserpine is due to its sympatholytic action (it inhibit the catechol amines as adrenaline and nor-adrenaline leading to decrease in cardiac ourput and consequently dercreas blood pressure. 98 49  11/22/2024 Origin The vertical rhizome and tap root of Taraxacum officinale, Family Compositae. 99 Active Constituents  Crystalline bitter substance, taraxacin.  Acrid resin, taraxacerin  Inulin is also present in large amounts up to 25% and other polysaccharides.  Sesquiterpene lactones generally occurring as glycosides (sugars), include taraxacosides, taraxacolides, dihydro-lactucin, ixerin, taraxinic acids, and ainslioside.  Phenylpropanoids (cinnamic acid derivatives) include cichoric acid, monocaffeoyltartaric acid, 4-caffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and related compounds  Triterpenes: taraxerol, taraxol.  Various acids including caffeic and p-hydroxyphenyl acetic acid  Minerals and vitamins 100 50  11/22/2024 Dandelion Uses:  Liver protection It has protective action for the liver by elevating anti oxidative potentials and decreasing lipid peroxidation.  Improved digestion Sesquiterpene lactones impart a bitter taste to the plant, which increase in bile production.  Increased bile flow An extract of the whole plant increased bile secretion by 40%  Anti-ulcer A water-based extract of the whole plant protected the animals against gastric ulceration.  Diuretics also known as "water pills," are commonly used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, liver disease, and some types of kidney disease. 101 Origin The dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Family: Zingiberaceae.. Preparation of Ginger to the market:  Obtained from the rhizomes of the plant originated in South East Asia.  Removal of soil particles, then rhizomes are immersed in boiling water (killed).  Carefully peeled, washed and then dried in the sun on mats (5-6 days).  Some Gingers “Coated unscraped gingers” are Forms of commercial ginger. 102 51  11/22/2024 Macroscopical characters:  Shape: The unscraped unbleached drug occurs in branched pieces known as “hands” or “races” of about 7- 15 cm long and 1-1.5 cm broad.  The outer surface is buff or light yellowish-brown in colour, with longitudinal striations.  Odour: Characteristic sweet aromatic,  The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture of volatile oils: zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, that compose 1-3 % of the weight of fresh ginger. 103  Taste: Pungent taste.  The pungent taste of the drug is due to a yellowish oily body, gingerol which is odourless but has intensely pungent taste.  Its pungency can be destroyed by boiling with 2% solution of potassium hydroxide. Microscopical characters:  In transverse section in scraped unbleached rhizome no cork observed ???.  The cortex.  The endodermis.  The vascular bundles.  Pericycle.  Stele. 104 52  11/22/2024  The cortex: Thin-walled cellulosic, rounded polygonal parenchyma, they contain abundant starch grains (simple, ovoid or sack-shaped and have eccentric hilum) Scitaminaceous Starch. 105  The cortex: Numerous oil cells with suberized walls enclosing yellow brown oleoresin scattered in the cortex. 106 53  11/22/2024  The endodermis The endodermis marked by a single layered endodermis free from starch. 107  The vascular bundles: The inner cortical zone contains about three rings of collateral closed vascular bundles. The larger bundles usually found near the endodermis and enclosed in a sheath of septate non-lignified fibers. 108 54  11/22/2024  The vascular bundles: The vascular bundles are accompanied by axially elongated secretion cells with dark contents (pigment cells). 109 Microscopical characters of the powder: Scitaminaceous starch : Simple starch granules, large oval in outline or sac shaped, few showing transverse striations with eccentric hilum. Septate non lignified fibers : Large septate non lignified fibers with transverse septa and oblique slit like pits. 110 55  11/22/2024 Oleo‐resin cells Reticularly lignified xylem with associated pigment cells 111 Active constituents  1–3% of volatile oil.  5-8% Oleo-resin  56% starch, mucilage and protein.  Volatile oil contains a mixture of more than 50 constituents containing monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes as Zigibrene and zingibrol, shoagols and Gingerol (pungent principle ; yellowish oily body )  The pungent taste of ginger is due to the presence of gingerol. 112 56  11/22/2024 Ginger Uses: 1- Anti emetic effects:  Ginger is effective in treating nausea and vomiting caused by pregnancy sea sickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy due to gingerols and shoagols.  It acts peripherally, within the gastrointestinal tract, by increasing the gastric tone and motility due to anticholinenergic and antiserotonergic actions. It is also reported to increase gastric emptying. 2- Digestive effects:  Condiment , carminative, stomachic, appetizer, and aromatic stimulant. 3- Anti-atherosclerotic  It have blood thinning (anti-blood-clotting ability) and cholesterol lowering properties. 113 4- Anti-inflammatory effects  An adjunctive treatment for inflammatory conditions, such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.  Ginger May Reduce Muscle Pain and Soreness. 5- Alzheimer’s Disease  Ginger May Improve Brain Function and Protect Against Alzheimer’s Disease. 114 57  11/22/2024 115 Origin Rhubarb is the peeled and dried rhizomes and big roots of Rheum palmatum L., Rheum officinale or other Rheum species (hybrids of these two species or mixture of them) except Rheum rhaponticum, Family Polygonaceae. Preparation of Rhubarb to the market:  The rhizomes decorticated, the large rhizomes are cut either longitudinally or transeversely. Then dried in the shade or sometimes dried by the heat of fires. 116 58  11/22/2024 Microscopical characters:  Powder is yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, characteristic odor and bitter astringent taste.  Starch granules [simple & compound 2-5 components mostly rounded (if simple) and muller-shaped (if compound), showing a radiate or split hilum].  Large clusters of Ca. Oxalate. 117  Yellow masses in the cells of the medullary rays, soluble in water and gives reddish-pink with ammonium hydroxide solution.  Xylem; reticulated but non-lignified. 118 59  11/22/2024 Active constituents 1- Anthraquinones:  Anthraquinone O-glycosides of aloe-emodin, emodin, chrysophanol and physcion.  Dianthrone glycosides of rhein (sennosides A and B) and their oxalates  Heterodianthrones including palmidin A, B & C, sennidin C, rheidin B & C.  Free anthraquinones mainly aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, emodin, physcion and rhein. 2- Tannins  Hydrolysable and condensed tannins including glucogallin, free gallic acid, epicatechin gallate and catechin. 119 Rhubarb Uses:  Rhubarb has been used traditionally both as a laxative and an antidiarrhoeal agent. The laxative action of anthraquinone derivatives is well recognized Rhubarb also contains tannins, which exert an astringent action. At low doses, rhubarb is stated to act as an antidiarrhoeal because of the tannin components, whereas at higher doses it exerts a cathartic action due to anthraquinone Chemical tests:  Tests for anthraquinones: Borntrager’s and modified Borntrager's tests → Rose red color. Microsubhmation test, powdered Rhubarb gives a yellow needle-shaped sublimate, which dissolves in KOH with a red color. 120 60  11/22/2024 Tests for purity Powdered Rhubarb Show no shining violet spots under UV light (c.f. Rhapontic Rhubarb). On a slide, place 2-3 drops of furfural in alcohol (90%) and 3 drops of sulfuric acid, then sprinkle powdered Rhubarb and observe immediately under the microscope; no bluish-violet color is produced (c.f. Rhapontic Rhubarb) Rhaponticin is main constituent of Rhapontic Rhubarb (a stilbene glycoside) , which shows blue fluorescence under ultraviolet light. There is no emodin, aloe-emodin or rhein 121 122 61  11/22/2024 Origin Curcuma is the prepared rhizomes of Curcuma domestica or Curcuma longa Valeton., Family Zingiberaceae. Preparation of Curcuma to the market:  Rhizomes are collected, cleaned, boiled and rapidly dried in open air and ground to make a yellow crude powder. 123 Active constituents 1- Carbohydrates  Carbohydrates are about 69.4% of total mass ( gelatinized starch) 2-Curcuminoids  Curcuminoids are about 0.6 to 5% of the dry mass as mixture of yellow coloring matters include curcumin (diferuloylmethane), mono & bis – desxmethoxycurcumin.  Curcumin makes up approximately 90% of the curcuminoid content in Turmeric. 3- Essential oil:  5.8% of total mass, constituents are: The mono- and sesquiterpenes include zingiberene, curcumene, aromatic turmerone and α- and β-turmerone a-phellandrene, sabinene, cineol, borneol. 4- Oleoresin 124 62  11/22/2024 Turmeric Uses: 1- Antioxidant  The phenolic groups in the structure of curcumin explain the ability of curcumin to eliminate oxygen derived free radicals. 2- Improve the liver function  Strong antihepatotoxic action For hepatitis and jaundice Treatment Curcumin induces the flow of bile due to the action of curcuminoids.. 3- Alzheimer’s disease  Breakdown the amyloid beta plaque formation. 4- Anti depressant  Curcumin increase the level of neurotrophic factor and modulates the level of neurotransmitters. 125 5- Treatment of digestive disorders  As a stomachic, (stomach upset, gas, and abdominal cramps). 6- Anti-inflammatory  Use to treat arthritis and other inflammatory diseases as skin inflammations. 7- Skin-lightening  Tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC), colorless compounds that have antioxidant and skin-lightening properties. 7- Used for cancer treatment and cardiovascular protection 8- Natural Coloring agent (curcumin, E 100) drugs, food and cosmetics. 9- Used in the preparation of curries, sauces and other condiments. 126 63  11/22/2024 127 Origin The carefully dried rhizome, frond bases and apical buds of Dryopteris Filix Mas , Family: Polypodiaceae  It’s odourless, disagreable, nauseous bitter taste Active constituents  Main components are: Filmarone, filicic acid (its lactone is filicin), Flavaspidic acid, flavaspidinol, aspidinol, filicitannic acid.  A yellow amorphous oleo-resin (mixture of ether-soluble phloroglucinol derivatives).  Fixed oil and resin. 128 64  11/22/2024 Male Fern Uses:  It is used as a powerfull vermifuge (kills and expells tap worms) Filmarone.  Flavaspidic acid (taenicide).  It should be used carefully (blindness). 129 Origin Valerian consists of the rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis, Family Valerianaceae. Collection and Preparation :  Valeriana collected in the autumn and dried at a temperature below 40°C.  The fresh drug is odourless but on drying it acquires a characteristic disagreable odour (Camphoraceous) and slightly bitter taste. 130 65  11/22/2024 Active constituents  Alkaloids :  Valerianine, valerene and chatinine.  Volatile oil  Esters (bornyl isovalerianate, bornyl acetate and bornyl formate)  Monoterpenes (camphene, borneol, eugenol, Isoeugenol) present mainly as esters.  Sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene, valeranone, valerianol, valerenol and a series of valerenyl esters, valerenal, valerenic acid with acetoxy and hydroxy derivatives).  Mucilage and resin. 131 Valerian Uses:  It possess sedative, mild anodyne, hypnotic, For support of mental relaxation and to aid natural sleep. For the relief of mild nervous tension and difficulty in falling asleep. Calmative in hysteria, insomnia and other nervous excitability disorders. Calmative in migraine, cramp, intestinal colic, rheumatic pains, and dysmenorrhea. A powerful carminative and antispasmodic. Hypotensive properties. It has mild diuretic effect. 132 66  11/22/2024 Origin The dried rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis, Family Berberidaceae Active constituents  IsoquinolineAlkaloids: hydrastine, berberine and canadine.  Resins  Traces of volatile oil.  Most of the actions of goldenseal have been attributed to hydrastine and berberine 133 Goldenseal Uses:  Bitter stomachic for poor appetite.  Treatment of mucous membrane infections  Mucous membrane infections including: ulcers, sinus infections, intestinal infections (dysentery), vaginal infections, eye infections, canker sores, and urinary tract infections.  Temporary relief of sinus congestion  For the temporary relief of sinus congestion due to colds and flu, hay fever, rhinitis and nasal dryness.  Treatment of catarrhal Gentio-urinary tract disorders  To control uterine haemorrhage.  Locally in treatment of catarrhal conditions of the gentio-urinary tract as gonorrhea and syphilis. 134 67  11/22/2024 135 Origin It consists of the bulbs of Allium sativum, Family Liliaceae.  Bulb of garlic is compound.  There are membraneous and fleshy scales.  Taste is oliaceous like onion but more stronger.  Odour is very characteristic. 136 68  11/22/2024 Active constituents 1- Volatile oils contains A- Sulfur-containing compounds B- Terpenes  Alliin (S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide)  Terpenes include citral, geraniol, linalool, a- and b-phellandrene. Enzymatic hydrolysis:  Allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate), allixin, Allicin and other sulfur-containing compounds are formed from alliin by the allylpropyl disulfide, diallyl disulfide, enzyme alliinase when garlic is crushed (Alliin and alliinase are separated while the diallyl trisulfide. cells of a garlic bulb are intact, but crushing Non-enzymatic hydrolysis: and chopping damage the cells of the bulb, allowing alliin and alliinase to come into  Ajoene and vinyldithiines. contact with each other.) 2- Adenosine and Pectins 137 Garlic Uses: 1- Treatment of arteriosclerosis and lipid-lowering effects.  Pectins: It lowers cholesterol production, used to control diarrhoea and recently used as an agent to lower serum cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood.  S-allyl-cysteine: It is reduces blood cholesterol and also used in treatment of arteriosclerosis because it lowers plasma triglycerides. 2- Antithrombotic and fibrinolytic effect  Adenosine: Nucleic acid which is considered as primary blocker of blood platelets.  Ajoene: prevents blood clots, against fungi and cancer. It prevents stomach cancer. 138 69  11/22/2024 3- Antimicrobial effect  Allicin: it is effective antibiotic substance.  Diallyl trisulphide: also it is useful in treatment of human cryptococcal meningitis, it has remarkable antifungal and antibacterial strength.  Garlic has Antiseptic, bacteriostatic, antiviral, and anthelmintic properties, and to be a promoter of leukocytosis.  Traditionally, it has been used to treat chronic bronchitis, respiratory catarrh, recurrent colds, whooping cough, bronchitic asthma, influenza and chronic bronchitis. Garlic is stated as diaphoretic, expectorant, antispasmodic, Modern as antihypertensive, cancer preventive and helps liver to perform its many functions better. 139 140 70  11/22/2024 Origin It consists of the bulbs of Mediterranean herb Urginea maritima Family Liliaceae. Active constituents 1- Cardiac glycosides  Scillaren A and proscillaridin A (major constituents).  Scillin, Scillitoxin, andScillipicrin  Scillaren B represents a mixture of the squill glycosides. 2- Bitter, non-nitrogenous glucoside  Scillitin 141 3- Mucilaginous carbohydrate  Sinistrin 4- Flavonoids  Apigenin, quercetin, dihydroquercetin, vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, iso-orientin, and luteolin. Squill Uses:  Cardiotonic effect  Cardiac tonic, acting in a similar manner to digitalis, slowing and strengthening the pulse Due to glucosidal substances Scillitoxin, Scillipicrin and Scillin  Expectorant for coughs  Squill stimulates the bronchial mucous membrane and is given in bronchitis after subsidence of the acute inflammation in chronic bronchitis, catarrhal affections and asthma due to cardioactive compounds and Scillitin. 142 71  11/22/2024  Diuretic effect  Squill has diuretic action to a direct stimulant effect upon the kidney due to Scillitin.  Emetic effect  Emetic an attributed to the cardioactive components  Rat poisons  In poisonous doses, Squill produces violent inflammation of the gastro-intestinal and genito-urinary tracts, manifested by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains and purging, and, in addition, dullness, stupour, convulsions, a marked fall in temperature, enfeebled circulation and sometimes death. 143 144 72