Study Guide: The Molecules of Life PDF

Study Guide: The Molecules of Life 1. Organic Chemistry (Study of Carbon) Definition: Organic compounds are biomolecules made mostly of C Significance of Carbon: ○ Most common element on Earth. ○ Forms covalent bonds easily. (easy to make or break) ○ Can bond...

Study Guide: The Molecules of Life 1. Organic Chemistry (Study of Carbon) Definition: Organic compounds are biomolecules made mostly of C Significance of Carbon: ○ Most common element on Earth. ○ Forms covalent bonds easily. (easy to make or break) ○ Can bond four times, allowing diverse structures. Pioneers: Discovered by August Kekulé. 2. Macromolecules: Monomers & Polymers Macromolecules: Large organic molecules critical to biology. ○ Made by joining monomers. Monomers: Smaller units that combine to form polymers. ○ Easy to make, transport & degrade. Polymers: Big molecules that are long chains of covalently bonded monomers. Biological molecules need to be big to perform complex chemical reactions critical for life. 3. Biochemical Unity Despite diversity (2 million life forms), all life shares similar basic molecules. Discovered by Albert Jan Kluijver. 4. The Biopolymers Carbohydrates: Energy storage (short and long term) and structural components. Lipids: Long-term energy storage, hormones, and structural components. Proteins: Manufacture, hormones, and structural components. Nucleic Acids: Information storage & transfer, protein synthesis, energy transfer. 5. Dehydration & Hydrolysis (Redox Reactions) Dehydration: Polymers built by joining monomers to form water. Hydrolysis: Breaking down a compund like polymers, using water. 6. Biological Polymers in Food Webs Biological polymers are transferred through food webs, facilitating nutrition. 7. Carbohydrates (Sugars) Made of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) Functions as energy storage and release with their bonds & as structural components. Types: ○ Monosaccharides: Monomers of simple sugars. ○ Disaccharides: Polymers of two sugars. ○ Oligosaccharides: Polymers of 2-10 sugars. ○ Polysaccharides: > 10 sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose). Common Sugars: ○ Fructose: Found in honey/fruit. ○ Glucose: Primary for energy release in cells. ○ High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS-55): Leading dietary sweetener; preserves shelf life and it cheaper. - Linked to obesity, heart attacks, and diabetes mellitus. 8. Polysaccharides Sucrose (Table Sugar): Fructose+Glucose - Major Sources: Sugarcane, sugar beet, palmyra palm, & coconut palm. Maltose: 2 Glucoses - Made by grains (barley, wheat, corn, sorghum, & rye) / In alcoholic drinks Lactose: Disaccharise made of galactose & glucose (milk and dairy) - Lactose Intolerance leads to flatulence, bloating, nasuea, & diarrhea. - Genentic Intolerance varies (75% white tolerant / 90% ethnic groups intolerant) Polysaccharides in Plants & Algae Starch: Energy storage in plants. - Made of mostly amylopectin & 10-20% amylose. Cellulose: Used to build plant & algal cells. - Most common polymer on earth; used to make textiles like cotton, rayon, & cellophane. Polysaccharides in Animals & Fungi Chitin: Creates cell walls of fungi, shells of arthopods, and mouth parts of mollusks. - 2nd most common polymer on earth. - Industrially used for water purifications, thickener of foods & drugs, (lab) membrane, binder for dyes & fabrics, size/strengthen paper, & biodegradable surgical sutures. Important Industrial Polysaccarides Guar Gum: Galactose+Mannose - Used for petroleum, natural gas drilling, food processing, weapons, cosmetics, & lifestock feed. - Pilar of Indian economy with 200,000 tons harvested annually. Agar: Red algae - Used in dairy desserts, dental impressions, & growth medium for bacteria. 9. Glycosides Sugar is bound to another reactive molecule. Made by plants as protective chemicals; used in medicines, poisons, & spices. 10. Lipids Types: Fats, waxes, & oils. Composition: Carbon+Hydrogen Atoms = Hydrocarbons Functions: Energy storage, cellular structure, communication, insulation, & protection. Lipids are Critically Important Hormones - long distance chemical messengers Napalm can be used as weapons. Vitamins A, D, E, & K: important for human diet. Lipids stimulate craving for foods. Important for nervous, immune, endocrine, & reproductive systems. Most lipids come from meat, but also from coconuts, avocado, olives & nuts. Steroids: Lipids made of 17 C’s that contain 4 rings with C’s & are made from cholesterol.  Triglycerides: 3 chains of hydrocarbons - Main constituents of vegetable oils & animal fats and used to form cellular boarders. Chain Lipid Saturation Saturated vs. Unsaturated: ○ Saturated: No double bonds, solid at room temperature. (C’s bound to many H’s) - Come from animal fats, but also coconuts & nuts. ○ Unsaturated: One or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature. (C’s not bound to many H’s) - Come from most plants. Types of Unsaturated Lipids Cis: Double bonds; chain bent Trans: Double bonds; straight Healthy dietary cis lipids: - Monounsaturated (MUFA): 1 double bond; prevent blood vessel damage and diabetes mellitus. - Polyunsaturaed (PUFA): > 1 double bond; found in plants; prevent blood vessel damage. - Omega 3: double bond at 3rd C from chain end; found in seafood; prevent heart & vessel damage. - Omega 6: double bond at 6 C from end chain; found in leafy vegetables. - Omega 6 & 3 compete with eachother for use in body. Essential Fatty Acids: Needed lipids we intake through diet. - Linoleic (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic (omega-3), gained through plant consumption. - Linoleic: used to make paint, found in safflower, corn, cottonseed, sesame, soybean & sunflower oils. - Linolenic: Found in canola, soybean, flax, & linseed oils. - Deficiencies: Liver & Kidney damage, depression, & decreased immune function. Saturated Fats: Risk for obesity, destrctive inflammation, cancers, atherosclerosis - scarring & narrowing of blood vessels, heart attact, stroke, pulmonary embolism, renal infarction, & diabetes mellitys. Lypid Hypothesis: 25-35% calories lipids, GHG air pollution. Soybean Oil: 2nd leading vegetable oil - Used in temperate nations for cooking Olive Oil: Mediterranean diets; enhance heart health & create pills. Prostaglandins Hormone Lipids: found in every human tissue; have 20 C’s & a 5 carbon ring Uses: labor and delivery, inflammation, hormone regulation, fever, blood vessel dilation, & cell growth. Cholesterol Steriod cyclic lipid made by all animal cells; obtained from meat & dairy. Used in cell borders, & sex/stress hormones. Lipoproteins Plasma lipoprotein particles carry lipids in bloodstream as high density lipoproteins (HDL) (HDL) = healthy -> low stroke, heart attack, & vesseldamage risk Low density lipoproteins (LDL) = bad -> high heart attack, vessel damage, & stroke LDL’s are often called good & bad cholesterolsrespectively HDL & LDL levels measured in lipid panel or profile blood test every (4-6 years) Blacks, Latinx, & Native Americans have genes in DNA that lead them to have high endogenous LDL’s & need to getannual lipid profiling Other lipoproteins can be toxins, enzymes, transporters, orused for structural purpose 11. Proteins Most structurally & functionally diverse molecule. Composition: Made of amino acids (21 types, including essential ones). All earth species use the same amino acids to create proteins. Functions: Enzymes, hormones, structural components. (Involved in all chemical reactions & structures of living things) Examples: Insulin, prolactin, leptin, & growth hormone are proteins. Selenocysteine is 21st amino acid used to make 25 human protiens. Kwashiorkor: A deficiency disease due to lack of 9 essential amino acids obtained from vegetables, corn, and beans. Leads to swelling, ulcers, infections, mental disability, & death. Treated wtih nut based nutrition supplement. Denaturating Proteins Denaturation: Protein stops working when shape unfolded, exposure to heat (> 104F/40C), stretching, & adverse pH. Cooking with Heat: heat denatures proteins & kills infectious agents = safe food Heatstroke: Body Temp >104F/40C; Risks brain, kidneys, heart, & muscles. - Leading cause of weather related death in children & elderly. Fever: Increase in temp to kill pathogens; fever center in brain initaties fever. 12. Nucleic Acids Definition: Polymers made from a few different nucleotide monomers. (made in nuclei) Types: DNA, RNA, ATP. Functions: - DNA stores genetic information and transfers information to the next generation (inheritance). - RNA communicated protein recipes from DNA, creates proteins, and causes chemical reactions. - ATP transfers energy around cells so proteins can work and create DNA & RNA. (ex: carry energy in phosphates -> essential to life) ATP used in 1 min -> constantly created Nucleotides Structure 1.) Sugar (ribose/RNA and deoxyribose/DNA) 2.) A phosphate group 3.) A base Function: Store & release energy in chemical reactions. DNA Two polymers twisted in a double helix. Two nitogenous bases bonded across each other are called a base pair. Nitrogenous bases adenine & thymine pair and guanine & cytosine pair. 13. Enzymes Definition: Most are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, some are nucleic acids. Functionality: Reactants (substrates) fit into the active site of enzymes that then react to turn substrates into products; enzymes are unchanged after the reaction so they can work again. (Some protein enzymes have the suffix “-ase” 14. Hormones Definition: Chemical messengers that regulate various functions. Usually travel in blood. Types: Can be lipids, proteins, or both. Impact: Growth, development, chemical reaction activities, behavior, mood, response to stress, reproduction, etc. (Many drugs are hormones!) 15. Biopolymers Glycoproteins: are a blending of proteins & carbohydrates & are often hormones or cell marker. (Used: egg whites and pregnancy tests) Glycolipids are a blending of lipids & carbohydrates & are often used for energy or cell markers. (Bacterial glycolipid can cause sepsis -> leading cause of death) 16. Vitamins Definition: 13 essential compounds that must be obtained through diet. Deficiencies: Lead to specific diseases, often cured by supplementation. Cure: Give vitamin within onset of disease and vitamin fortified foods. (seen in impovershed or substance abusers)